LIBRARY 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


Gl  FT    OF 


Class 


MANUAL 


OP    THE 


FREE  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


OF     WISCONSIN 


FIFTH    EDITION 

(REVISED.) 


C.  P.  GARY,  State  Superintendent. 
1906. 


MADISON,  WIS.: 
DEMOCRAT  PRINTING  Co.,  STATE  PRINTER. 

1906, 


V 

MANUAL 


OF    THE 


FREE  HIGH  SCHOOLS 


OF     WISCONSIN. 


FIFTH    EDITION 

(REVISED.) 


C.  P.  GARY,  State  Superintendent. 
1906. 


MADISON,  WIS.: 
DEMOCRAT  PRINTING  Co.,  STATE  PRINTER, 

IQC6. 


INTRODUCTION. 


This  Manual  is  intended  to  aid  in  interpreting  the  laws  re- 
lating to  free  high  schools,  to  furnish  information  regarding 
their  establishment,  organization  and  management  and  to  offer 
suitable  suggestions  as  to  the  scope  and  character  of  the  in- 
struction in  such  schools. 

Part  I  contains  general  suggestions  and  the  courses  of  study; 
Part  II  comments  on  the  courses  and  suggestive  methods  of 
teaching;  Part  III,  the  laws  under  which  the  schools  are  or- 
ganized and  maintained. 

The  Manual  of  the  Elementary  Course  of  Study  for  Com- 
mon Schools  should  be  consulted  and  studied  for  more  extended 
outlines  and  directions  in  connection  with  the  work  in  Read- 
ing, Arithmetic,  Grammar,  Geography,  Penmanship,  Spelling, 
Physiology  and  United  States  History,  and  for  tests  for  pro- 
motion to  high  schools.  The  completion  of  the  course  of  study 
for  common  schools,  or  its  equivalent,  is  required  for  admis- 
sion to  high  schools. 


PART  I. 


General  Suggestions. 


Q-M 


GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS. 


ORGANIZATION. 


For  guidance  in  organizing  and  conducting  a  free  high 
school,  inquirers  are  referred  to  Part  III  of  this  Manual  which 
contains  the  laws  relating  to  free  high  schools.  Correspond- 
ence is  invited  by  the  state  superintendent. 


QUALIFICATIONS  OF  TEACHERS. 


High  school  teachers  should  not  neglect  or  fail  to  obtain  the 
necessary  and  proper  legal  qualifications.  Without  such  quali- 
fication, no  valid  contract  can  be  made  with  the  high  school 
board,  nor  is  the  teacher  entitled  to  pay  from  the  public  funds. 
Under  no  circumstances  should  the  work  of  teaching  be  entered 
upon  before  the  propar  legal  qualification  has  been  obtained. 

Any  high  school  board  employing  a  teacher  without  legal 
qualification,  renders  the  high  school  district  liable  to  loss  of 
state  aid. 

Any  one  of  the  following  named  documents  is  considered  a 
sufficient  legal  and  educational  qualification  for  the  position  of 
principal  or  assistant  in  any  high  school: 

1.  The  Wisconsin  unlimited  state  certificate. 

2.  A  diploma  granted  upon  the  completion  of  a  regular  col- 
legiate course  in  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  or  upon  the  com- 
pletion of  the  full  course  of  any  Wisconsin  state  normal  school, 
if  countersigned  by  the  state  superintendent  of  Wisconsin. 

3.  A  special  license  good  for  one  year  issued  by  the   state 
superintendent  to  the  holder  of  either  of  the  above  diplomas. 

4.  A  special  license  good  for  two  years,  issued    by  the  state 
superintendent  and  based  upon  a  diploma  from  a  state  normal 
school,  located  outside  of  Wisconsin,  and  whose  courses  of  study 
are  fully  and  fairly  equivalent  to  the   corresponding  advanced 
courses  in  the  Wisconsin  state  normal  schools. 


WIISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH   SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906. 


5.  A  special  license  good  for  two  years,  issued  by  the  State 
Superintendent  and  based  upon  a  diploma  from  a  university 
or  college  located  outside  of  Wisconsin  and  whose  courses  of 
study   are   fully  and  fairly  equivalent  to  the   corresponding 
courses  of  study  in  the  Wisconsin  State  University. 

6.  A  special  license  good  for  two  years,  issued  by  the  State 
Superintendent,  based   upon  an    unlimited    state    certificate, 
granted  to  the  applicant  by  legal  authority  in  another  state. 

7.  An  unlimited  state  certificate,  based  upon  a  diploma  from 
a  college  or  university  in  Wisconsin,   whose  courses  of  study 
are  fully  and  fairly  equivalent  to  corresponding  courses  in  the 
University  of  Wisconsin.     The  holder   of  this   diploma  must 
have  successfully  taught  for  at  least  one  year  in  the  public 
schools  of  Wisconsin,  after  graduation,  before  such  certificate 
can  be  issued. 

8.  An  unlimited  state  certificate,  based  upon  a  diploma  from 
a  college  or  university  outside  of  Wisconsin  whose  regular  and 
collegiate  courses  of  study  are  fully  and  fairly  equivalent  to  cor- 
responding courses  in  the  University  of  Wisconsin.  The  holder 
of  this  diploma  must  have  successfully  taught  for  at  least  two 
years  in  the  public  schools  of  Wisconsin,  after  graduation,  be- 
fore such  certificate  can  be  issued. 

9.  An  unlimited  state  certificate,  based  upon  a  diploma  from 
a  state  normal  school  outside  of  Wisconsin  whose  courses   of 
study  are  fully  and  fairly  equivalent  to  the  advanced  or  four 
year  courses  of  study  prescribed  for  the   Wisconsin  state  nor- 
mal schools.     The  holder  of  such  diploma  must  have  success- 
fully taught  for  at  least  two  years  in  the  public  schools  of  Wis- 
consin, after  graduation,  before  such  certificate  can  be  issued. 

10.  A   special  license  will  be  issued  by  the    State    Superin- 
tendent when  recommended  by  the  State  Board  of  Examiners, 
after  said  board  has  passed  favorably  on  the  papers,  documents, 
credentials   and   testimonials   furnished    by  the  officers  of  the 
institution  from  which  the  applicant  has  graduated,   and  such 
other  persons  as  may  be  named  or  called  upon  for  reference  as 
to  learning,  good  moral  character,  ability  to  teach,  ability  to 
govern,  and  ability  to  conduct  and  supervise  a  school. 


LIMITED   STATE  CERTIFICATES   AND  ASSISTANTS' 
CERTIFICATES. 

A  limited  state  certificate,  gained  by  examination  given  by 
the  Wisconsin  state  board  of  examiners,  qualifies  the  holder 
during  the  life  of  the  certificate  for  the  principalship  of  a  free 
high  school  having  a  three  years'  course  of  study  only.  . 


WISCONSIN  FREE  HIGH  SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906. 


A  certificate  granted  upon  the  completion  of  the  elementary 
course  prescribed  for  Wisconsin  state  normal  schools,  if  counter- 
signed by  the  state  superintendent,  legally  qualifies  its  holder 
for  the  principalship  of  a  free  high  school  having  a  three  years' 
course  of  study,  but  not  for  the  principalship  of  a  high  school 
having  a  four  years'  course  of  study.  A  special  license  issued 
by  the  state  superintendent  for  one  year,  to  the  holder  of  a 
Wisconsin  normal  school  elementary  certificate,  gives  like  legal 
qualification  to  its  holder. 

Any  person  desiring  to  occupy  the  position  of  assistant  in  a 
free  high  school,  who  does  not  hold  (a)  some  one  of  the  above 
named  documents,  or  (b)  a  county  superintendent's  certificate, 
as  provided  by  chapter  333;  laws  of  1895,  and  laws  amendatory 
thereto,  should  first  obtain  a  certificate  from  the  superinten- 
dent of  the  city  or  county  in  which  he  intends  to  teach,  which 
certificate  should  be  of  the  first  grade  and  issued  on  a  written 
examination. 

If  his  position  as  assistant  requires  him  to  teach  branches 
not  named  in  the  certificate  thus  held  or  obtained,  he  will  be 
required  to  pass  a  satisfactory  examination  in  such  branches 
under  the  direction  of  the  state  superintendent  or  present  satis- 
factory evidence  of  having  completed  the  study  of  this  branch 
in  some  accredited  institution.  The  amount  of  work  done  and 
the  final  standings  obtained  in  each  such  branch  must  be  pre- 
sented in  evidence.  To  enable  assistants  properly  to  qualify 
for  their  positions,  the  subjects  they  are  to  teach  should  be  de- 
termined and  made  known  to  them  by  the  high  school  board  as 
early  as  possible.  High  school  assistants  whose  certificates  ex- 
pire June  30th  of  the  current  year,  should  secure  certificates 
for  the  next  year  before  making  a  new  contract. 

All  documents  described  above  are  subject  to  the  inspection 
and  approval  of  the  state  superintendent,  under  section  494  of 
the  revised  statutes.  For  this  reason  every  diploma  or  certifi- 
cate relied  upon  as  a  legal  qualification  must  be  forwarded  to 
the  state  superintendent  for  approval  before  its  holder  can  com- 
plete a  legal  contract  with  any  high  school  board.  This  re- 
quirement does  not  apply  to  Wisconsin  state  certificates,  to 
properly  countersigned  diplomas,  to  licenses  which  have  not 
expired,  or  to  properly  countersigned  state  certificates  from 
other  states. 

Elementary  certificates  from  normal  schools  of  other  states, 
limited  state  certificates  or  limited  licenses  of  any  kind  from 
other  states  can  not  be  given  legal  recognition. 

Special  licenses  authorizing  the  licensee  to  teach  a  special 
subject  or  subjects,  such  as  music,  drawing,  elocution,  manual 
training  or  domestic  science,  in  which  said  licensee  has  made 
special  and  satisfactory  preparation,  will  be  granted  upon  rec- 


WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH  SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906. 


ommendation  of  the  state  board  of  examiners  when  complete 
and  satisfactory  evidence  of  such  preparation  is  presented  with 
the  application. 

For  special  cases  see  Chapter  231,  Laws  of  1905,  as  printed 
in  this  manual  in  statutes  relating  to  free  high  schools. 

MANAGEMENT. 

The  high  school  board  should  co-operate  with  the  teachers 
in  all  important  matters  and  should  at  all  times  give  them 
strong  and  consistent  support  while  exercising  authority  with 
which  they  have  been  clothed. 

Respect  for  authority  should  begin  with  those  who  are  given 
authority,  and  should  show  itself  in  prompt  and  willing  obe- 
dience on  the  part  of  teachers  and  principal  to  the  expressed 
wishes  of  the  board  of  education. 

All  reports  required  by  the  principal  from  teachers,  by  the 
board  from  the  principal,  and  by  the  state  superintendent,  both 
from  teachers  and  boards,  should  be  carefully  prepared  and 
promptly  rendered.  To  this  end,  school  records,  including  final 
standings,  should  be  posted  to  date,  and  books,  apparatus  and 
all  school  material  should  be  frequently  inventoried  and  at  all 
times  properly  classified. 

The  principal  is  responsible  to  the  local  board  and  to  the 
state  superintendent: 

(a)  For  the  character  of  the  instruction  given  by  himself 
and  his  assistants, 

(b)  For  the  habits  of  study,  character  of  recitation,  and  in- 
tellectual and  moral  progress  of  each  pupil. 

(c)  For  the  condition  of  the  building,  apparatus,  library  and 
closets,  and 

(d)  He  is  required  to  see  to  it  that  the  courses   of  study 
adopted  by  the  board  and  approved  by  the  state  superintendent 
are  not  changed  by  omissions,  additions,  or  alterations  with- 
out the  written  approval  of  the  state  superintendent. 

The  recitation  program  should  be  prepared  in  accordance 
with  the  course  of  study;  should  be  arranged  primarily  for  the 
convenience  of  pupils  rather  than  that  of  teachers;  and  should 
be  posted  in  a  conspicuous  and  permanent  place. 

It  is  recommended  that  all  persons  occupying  the  high  school 
room  be  requested  to  preserve  order  at  all  times.  Idle  habits 
are  formed  and  valuable  time  is  wasted  in  schools  where  pupils 
at  morning,  noon  and  night  loiter  in  the  study  room  to  indulge 
in  noisy  chatter  and  boisterous  fun. 


WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,   1906. 


COURSES  OF  STUDY. 

The  state  superintendent  is  authorized  by  law  to  personally 
supervise  the  free  high  schools,  and  to  appoint  a  person  to  aid 
in  such  duty.  Section  496a,  (as  amended  by  Chap.  439,  Laws 
of  1901),  reads:  "The  state  superintendent  shall  prepare  a 
course  or  courses  of  study  suitable  to  be  pursued  in  free  high 
schools,  publish  the  same  and  furnish  the  same  upon  applica- 
tion. *  *  *  Each  free  high  school  shall  offer  at  least  a 
twelve  weeks'  course  oi  instruction  each  year  in  the  theory  and 
art  of  teaching;  in  the  organization,  management .  and  course 
of  study  of  ungraded  schools;  and  in  the  duties  of  citizens  in 
the  organization  and  administration  of  local  school  systems. 
Such  a  course  of  instruction  shall  be  open  to  all  students  in  the 
school." 

In  compliance  with  this  statute,  courses  have  been  published 
and  are  commended  to  the  consideration  of  boards,  as  recited 
in  form  hereinafter. 

All  courses  adopted  by  boards  must  be  approved  by  the  state 
superintendent  in  order  that  the  school  may  share  in  the  ap- 
portionment of  the  state  aid.  Any  changes  in  these  courses 
after  adoption  and  approval,  without  the  consent  of  the  state 
superintendent,  will  jeopardize  the  state  aid,  and  no  changes  in 
the  courses  can  be  approved  for  operation  during  a  school  year. 
All  negotiations  for  change  should  be  perfected  so  as  to  inaugu- 
rate actual  changes  in  the  course  on  the  opening  of  the  fall 
term. 

It  has  become  an  established  rule  to  require  every  school 
board  to  adopt  and  offer  an  English  course  of  study  which  shall 
contain  no  foreign  language.  This  rule  continues  in  force  ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  schools  offering  a  single  course.  These 
schools  are  permitted  to  offer  not  more  than  two  years  of  a  for- 
eign language,  when,  and  only  when,  it  is  shown  by  a  resolu- 
tion passed  at  an  annual  meeting  that  the  people  of  the  com- 
munity desire  it. 

For  the  four  years'  English  course  there  must  be  two 
teachers, —  the  principal  and  one  assistant  at  least, —  where  in 
addition  to  the  full  work  of  an  English  course,  two  or  more 
years  of  a  foreign  language  are  offered,  the  services  of  a  second 
assistant  are  required.  If  more  than  six  years  of  foreign  lan- 
guage or  other  work  are  offered  in  addition  to  the  work  of  the 
full  English  course,  a  third  assistant  must  be  procured. 

Each  high  school  having  a  course  of  three  years  will  be  re- 
quired to  have  one  teacher  who  shall  devote  all  his  time  and 
an  assistant  who  shall  devote  at  least  one-half  her  time  to  high 
school  work. 


WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH   SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906. 


Courses  of  study  now  in  operation  in  free  high  schools  and 
approved  by  the  state  superintendent,  may  continue  in  opera- 
tion and  receive  the  sanction  of  this  department.  The  follow- 
ing rules  outline  the  method  of  procedure  of  any  free  high 
school  board  when  changes  in  the  present  courses  are  desired  ~ 
by  them: 

I.  All  proposed  changes  in  courses  of  study  should  first  be  brought  to 
the  attention  of  the  state  superintendent.     When  approved  by   him,  a 
copy  of  the  course  as   adopted    must  be  signed  by  the  secretary  of  the 
board  of  education,  and  filed  with  the  state  superintendent. 

II.  New  courses  should  go  into  force  only  at  the  beginning  of  a  school 
year,  and  should  be  put  into  operation  gradually,  and  in  such  manner  as 
not  to  affect  the  plans  of  pupils  who  have  already  entered  upon  the  work 
of  a  former  course. 

III.  No  courses  will  be  approved  where  the  teaching  force  is  insuf- 
ficient for  their  administration.   An  increase  in  the  number  of  the  courses  of 
study  in  a  school  or  an  increase  in  the  number  of  electives  where  a  single 
course  is  offered,  must  carry  with  it  an  increase  in  the  teaching  force. 

CORE  OF  REQUIRED  WORK  FOR  ALL  COURSES. 

Every  four  year  course  of  study  shall  contain  at  least  fourteen  year 
units  of  work.  Of  these  the  following  units  of  work  should  be  found  in 
every  course  of  study  (a  unit  of  work  to  mean  one  year's  work  of  one  pe- 
riod a  day,  or  180,  or  more,  recitations).  Recitation  periods  should  be  not 
less  than  35  minutes  in  length  and  a  longer  period  is  desirable. 

I.     Mathematics: — 

Algebra,     1  unit. 

Geometry,  1  unit 2  units. 

II.    English:— 

(Includes  literature,  literary  readings,  composition, 

grammar  and  rhetoric) 2  units. 

III.     Science: — 

(r».)  Physics,  1  unit. 

(b)  Any  one  of  the  following  sciences,  or  a  combi- 
nation of  not  more  than  two  of  them.  Botany, 
zoology,  physiology,  physical  geography— 1 
unit 2  units. 

IV.  History :- 

(a)  United  States  history,  including  history  of  the 
constitution,  1  unit. 

(6)  Ancient  history,  or  ancient  and  medieval,  or 
medieval  and  modern  and  English  history, 
1  unit 2  units. 

V.  Theory  and  art  of  teaching  must  be  offered  as  an  option  for  at 
least  12  weeks,  or  may  be  required  in  one  or  all  courses.  (See 
sec.  496a,  as  amended  by  chapter  439,  laws  of  1901.) 

VI.  In  courses  offering  less  than  four  years  of  work  in  a  foreign  lan- 
guage, there  must  be  at  least  three  units  of  work  in  English,  and 
two  and  one-half  units  in  history. 


10  WISCONSIN  FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,   1906. 


OPTIONS. 

Subject  to  the  advice  and  sanction  of  the  state  superintendent,  and  sub- 
ject to  the  conditions  herein  contained,  high  schools  have  the  following 
branches  from  which  to  choose  in  the  construction  of  school  courses: 

1.  Any  foreign  language.  -^r- 

2.  Chemistry  or  any  one  of  the  sciences  named  in  the  "Core  of  required 

work." 

3.  History. 

4.  English. 

5.  Mathematics. 

6.  Civics. 

7.  Political  Economy. 

8.  Psychology. 

9.  Commercial  subjects. 

10.  Subjects  found  in  Manual  Training  and  Domestic  Science  courses. 


MAXIMUM  AND  MINIMUM  TIME  LIMITS. 

1.  No  subject,  as  a  general  rule,  should  be  offared  for  a  less  time  than 
one  half  year.    Algebra  and  geometry  should  never  be  required  for  a  period 
to  exceed  one  and  one-half  years  each. 

2.  Chemistry,  if  offered,  should  be  offered  for  a  full  year. 

3.  Not  less  than  two  years  of  any  foreign  language  may  be  offered. 

4.  No  single  science  should  extend  through  more  than  one  year. 

5.  The  maximum  time  for  history  shall  be  three  years,  or  four  years  in- 
cluding civics  and  economics.     Where  instruction  in  American  history  in 
the  elementary  schools  is  strong,  it  is  advisable  to  have  United  States 
history  follow  rather  than  precede  European  history. 

6.  Civics  and  Economics  not  to  exceed  one-half  year  each- 

7.  Teachers  in  all  branches  of  study  will  be  held  responsible  for  results 
in  English,  and  all  teachers  of  Composition  and   Literature  are  urgad  to 
make  an  especial  effort  to  improve  the  organization  of  this  work. 

TYPE  COURSES  OF  STUDY. 

The  following  type  course  is  made  in  accordance  with  preceding:  rules, 
and  should  be  adhered  to  as  closely  as  possible.  The  options  offered  in 
the  course  are  not  intended  to  encourage  or  to  discourage  optional  courses 
in  high  schools,  but  are  to  be  interpreted  as  intended  solely  to  indicate 
the  various  opportunities  for  choice  which  school  boards  have  in  the  mak- 
ing of  local  courses  of  study. 

I.    English  1.    (Includes  Composition  and  Literary  Readings.) 
Science  1. 
English  Grammar  1,  or  English  Grammar  J£,  Physiology  J£,  or 

Latin  1. 
Algebra  1. 

II.     Ancient  History  1,  or  Ancient  History  y%  and  Medieval  ££. 
Science  1. 
English  1. 

Arithmetic  ^,  and  Commercial  Geography  or  Book-keeping  ^, 
or  Latin  1. 


WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH  .SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906. 


III.  English  1,  or  Latin  1. 
Geometry  1. 

Medieval  or  Modern  History  )£,  Eiglish  History  ^, 

or 
Modern  History  J£,  English  History  ^, 

or 

English  History  ^  and  Civics,  %. 

Science  1,  or  Economics  ^,  and  advanced  Composition  ^  or  Ger- 
man 1,  or  Greek  1. 

IV.  United  States  History  1,  or  United  States  History  y%  and  Civics  ^. 
Physics  1. 

Literature  1,  or  German  1,  or  Greek  1. 

Algebra  l£,  and  Theory  and  Art  and  Reviews  J£,  or  Latin  1, 

or 
Psychology  and  Theory  and  Art  and  Reviews  1. 

For  guidance  in  the  choice  and  arrangement  of  subjects  in  science  and 
history,  see  the  minimum  requirements  in  "Core  of  required  work."  No 
local  course  should  contain  such  indefinite  terms  as  "Science,"  or  "His- 
tory." Indicate  the  particular  science  to  be  offered  at  any  given  point. 

The  following  course  of  study  presents  a  specific  application 
of  the  preceding  and  is  being,  with  slight  variations,  generally 
adopted.  It  is  printed  in  this  form  for  convenience  and  may 
readily  be  worked  over  into  the  separate  English  and  Science 
courses  when  desired. 


WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH  SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906. 


TYPE  COURSE. 

FIRST  YEAR. 

FIRST  SEMESTER.  SECOND  SEMESTER. 

Required  Units. 

English.  English. 

Algebra.  Algebra. 

Elect  Two  Units. 

Physical  Geography.  Physiology. 

Latin.  Latin. 

Spelling,  Penmanship,  etc.  Literary  Reading. 

Manual  Training  or  Dom  istic  Science.  Manual  Training  or  Domestic  Science . 

SECOND  YEAR. 
Required  Units. 

Ancient  History.  •  Ancient  History. 

English.  English. 

Elect  Two  Units. 

Botany.  Botany. 

Latin.  Latin. 

Arithmetic  and  Bookkeeping.  Arithmetic  and  Bookkeeping. 

Manual  Training  or  Domestic  Science.  Manual  Training  or  Domestic  Science. 

THIRD  YEAR. 
Required  Units. 

Geometry.  Geometry. 

Medieval  History.  English  History. 

Elect  Two  Units. 

English.  English. 

German.  German. 

Latin.  Latin. 

Economics.  Grammar. 

FOURTH  YEAR. 
Required  Units. 

Physics.  Physics. 

American  History  and  Civics.  American  History  and  Civics. 

Elect  Two  Units. 

English.  English. 

German.  German. 

Latin.  Latin. 

Advanced  Algebra.  Theory  and  Art. 

NOTB. — In  courses  offering  less  than  four  years  of  work  in  a  foreign  language,  there 
mast  be  at  least  tbree  units  of  work  in  English;  English  grammar  in  the  third  year 
may  count  as  one-half  unit. 

Not  less  thin  two  years  of  any  foreign  language  will  be  accepted. 

L  itio  students  mav  ele^t  Advanced  Algebra  IV  in  place  of  Medieval  History  lit. 

Wiiere  the  term  "English"  appears,  work  in  the  study  of  literary  masterpieces,  library 
work,  composition,  and  applied  gramnar  is  implied. 

Advanced  composition  is  often  offered  in  place  of  economics. 

Uale?s  a  sufficient  number  of  students  to  form  a  class  of  fair  size,  desire  to  take  any 
givei  elective  c  mrse,  it  shoal  I  not  be  offerei. 

An  additional  semester  of  physical  geography  may  be  substituted  for  physi- 
ology, and  physiology  taken  instead  of  first  literary  reading.  If  physiology  is 
not  given  a  place  in  the  course  as  a  regular  study,  special  lessons  should  be 
given  in  physiology  and  hygiene  with  particular  reference  to  the  effects  of  stim- 
ulants and  narcotics.  These  may  be  a  part  of  the  general  exercises  for  which  a 
period  of  about  twenty  minutes  is  allowed  in  the  program  of  many  schools. 


WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,   1906. 


13 


RECORDS. 

Boards  should  provide  for  the  high  school  two  record  books 
sufficiently  large  to  serve  for  several  years.  In  a  form  like  the 
following,  should  be  kept  the  term  or  semi-term  standings: 


Arithmetic. 

Grammar. 

History, 

Etc. 

A.  B. 

75 

88 

83 

78 

98 
83 

79 

86 

88 
83 

84 

83 

C.D. 

, 

The  other  should  record  the  final  standings  only,  and  may 
be  ruled  as  follows: 


Name. 

Arith- 
metic 

"Grammar. 

History. 

Etc. 

J.  S. 

83 

88, 

79 

The  book  records  should  be  kept  posted  to  date,  so  as  to  af- 
ford reliable  references  at  any  time,  for  promotions,  reports, 
and  for  granting  certificates  of  graduation. 

In  place  of  book  records,  many  of  the  larger  schools  are 
using  a  card  system  of  records  similar  to  the  following.  For 
convenience  arrange  subjects  by  years. 

Provide  a  case  of  two  drawers  with  lock  and  key.  Transfer 
cards  to  second  drawer  when  pupils  withdraw  or  graduate. 
The  back  of  the  card  can  be  used  for  further  data.  A  special 
card  for  final  standings  only  is  sometimes  provided  for  safety. 


14  WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906. 


Student 


When  born 


Entered 


Parent 


Address 


it 

•®  o 


• 


Eater  Final  Standings  ia  column  5  in  red  ink,  or  Quarterly  Standings  in  first  four 
columns     Enter  Term  Standings  in  first  three  columns. 


STANDARD  OF  ADMISSION. 


The  standard  established  in  the  examination  for  the  organi- 
zation of  the  free  high  school,  must  not  be  lowered  after  the 
establishment  of  the  school.  The  minimum  of  admission  to  all 
the  free  high  schools,  is  the  standard  prescribed  for  completion 
of  The  Course  of  Study  for  Common  Schools.  If  pupils  whose 
scholarship  is  below  such  common  school  standard  are  taught 
by  any  high  school  teacher,  an  appropriate  deduction  must  be 
made  from  the  total  amount  which  the  board  reports  expended 
for  high  school  instruction.  This  may  mean  reduced  appor- 
tionment of  state  aid. 

The  following  is  the  summary  of  the  course  laid  down  in 
The  Manual  of  the  Elementary  Course  of  Study  for  Common 
Schools  and  will  assist  in  determining  the  requisites  for  admis- 
sion to  the  high  schools.  Close  study  of  the  Manual  will  re- 
veal the  force  and  meaning  of  this  summary.  References  to 
that  publication  are  inserted  to  facilitate  comparison. 


WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH  iSCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906.  15 


READING. 

The  pupil  should  have  acquired: 
Ability  to  read  intelligently  and  expressively  any  selection  in 

the  Fourth  Reader. 
Ability  to  give  a  clear  statement  of  the  meaning  of  the  words 

used. 
Ability  to  modulate  the  voice  in  stress,  volume,  pitch,  rate, 

inflection  and  quality. 
Ability  to  recite  with  good  expression  choice  selections  of  prose 

and  poetry  equal  in  amount  to  six  pages  of  the  reader. 
Ability  to  use  the  dictionary  intelligently. 


SPELLING. 

The  pupil  should  spell  correctly  through  force  of  habit  what- 
ever he  writes.  He  should  have  the  habit  of  consulting  the 
dictionary  in  all  -doubtful  spelling.  He  may  be  fairly  tested 
by  his  spelling  in  examination  papers,  by  a  promiscuous  list 
of  fifty  or  more  words,  and  by  applying  the  principal  rules  of 
spelling. 


WRITING. 

The  pupil  should  have  the  ability  to  write  legibly  and  neatly, 
and  to  prepare  papers  in  good  form. 


GRAMMAR. 

The  pupil  should  be  able: 
To  give  clear  and  grammatical  oral   and  written  expression  to 

his  thoughts,  and  to  use  capitals  and  punctuation  marks 

correctly. 
To  use  a  vocabulary  that  is  sufficient  for  the  precise  expression 

of  his  thoughts. 
To  use  nouns,  pronouns,    adjectives,  and    verbs  correctly  in 

the  construction  of  sentences,  as  suggested   in  the  outline 

of  work. 

To  separate   easy  composition  into  component  sentences,  sen- 
tences into  principal  and  modifying  elements,  and  to  apply 

rules  of  construction, 


16  W1ISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH  SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906. 


GEOGRAPHY. 

The  pupil  should  be  able: 
To  read  maps  readily. 

To  sketch  in  outline  each  of  the  continents,  to  state  approxi- 
mately their  relative  sizes,  using  Wisconsin  and  the  United 

States  as  units  of  measure. 
To  locate  the  system  of  water-partings  and  drainage  slopes  of 

each  continent. 
To  locate  and  tell  something  about  some  land  and  water  forms,— 

some  city,  or  other  point  of  interest  included  in  the  course 

of  tracing  lessons. 
To  describe  important  areas  of  production,  especially  those  of 

his  own  country. 
To  draw  a  map  of  Wisconsin  from  memory,  with  a  fair  degree 

of  accuracy. 
To  comprehend  clearly  the  system  of  reckoning  standard  time; 

also  the  method  of  surveying  public  lands,  with  practical 

applications. 


ARITHMETIC. 

The  pupil  should  show: 

Ability  to  analyze  problems  involving  applications  of  percent- 
age indicated  in  the  course  of  study,  problems  in  proportion, 
and  in  mensuration  of  surfaces  and  solids  when  geomet- 
rical formulas  are  not  employed.  This  analysis  should 
show  a  logical  train  of  thought  properly  expressed. 
Ability  to  indicate  by  arithmetical  symbols  the  operations  neces- 
sary to  the  solution  of  problems  in  the  classes  mentioned 
above. 

Ability  to  extract  square  and  cube  roots  by  some  one  method. 
Ability  to  state  original  practical  problems  of  the  various  classes 

indicated  in  first  paragraph,  and  to  solve  them. 
Skill  in  writing  the  various  kinds  of  business  forms  in  common 
use,  and  in  performing  by  short  methods  the  computations 
required  in  ordinary  business  transactions. 
Ability  to  define    arithmetical   terms  used,  and  to   state  rules 

for  performing  operations. 

Accuracy  and  rapidity  in  performing  the  work  required 
above,  are  essential  requisites  for  completion  of  the  work 
of  this  Form. 


WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH  SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906.  17 


PHYSIOLOGY. 

The  pupil  should  be  able  to  give  the  general  structure  of  the 
alimentary,  respiratory,  and  nervous  organs  of  the  body — their 
chief  functions,  the  well  established  laws  of  health,  and  the 
effects  of  stimulants  and  narcotics. 


CONSTITUTION. 

It  is  expected  that  both  history  and  constitutions  will  have 
been  studied  before  the  pupil  enters  the  high  school.  It  is 
unnecessary  to  make  a  summary  of  the  preliminary  work  that 
should  be  done  in  those  branches,  but  reference  is  made  to  The 
Manual  for  Common  Schools,  under  the  head  of  "Constitu- 
tions." 


AGRICULTURE. 

Agriculture  is  now  a  required  study  in  all  the  district  schools 
of  Wisconsin.  After  the  year  1906  pupils  graduating  from 
these  schools  will  be  required  to  pass  a  satisfactory  examina- 
tion in  this  subject. 

2 


PART  II. 


Subjects  and  Methods. 


20  WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,   1906. 


SCIENCE. 


In  teaching  the  physical  and  the  biological  sciences  in  the 
high  school,  two  phases  should  stand  out  strong.  One  is  the 
nature  side  of  the  work,  the  other  the  science  side.  The  na- 
ture phases  should  give  the  pupil  the  fullest  possible  acquaint- 
ance with  nature  in  its  real  manifestations,  its  phenomena  and 
its  sequences.  This  part  of  the  work  can  be  pursued  satisfac- 
torily only  in  the  field  and  the  laboratory.  The  science  side  of 
the  work  should  give  the  pupil  a  systematic  knowledge  of  the 
laws  and  principles  involved  and  of  the  established  classifica- 
tion of  the  data  of  the  science.  A  scientific  knowledge  of  na- 
ture in  any  of  its  aspects  comes  from  a  thoughtful  study  of  its 
phenomena,  from  scientific  literature,  and  from  instruction. 

The  study  of  the  text  book  and  scientific  literature  may  give 
the  pupil  considerable  knowledge  of  the  science,  but  it  will  be 
weak  and  unsatisfactory  unless  it  is  supported  by  an  intimate 
acquaintance  with  nature  gained  at  first  hand.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  equally  objectionable  for  the  pupil  to  spend  his  time 
in  the  laboratory  peering  into  a  microscope  or  performing  ex- 
periments without  such  an  accompaniment  of  the  philosophy 
of  things  as  will  enable  him  to  make  a  broader  interpretation 
of  nature,  and  to  .gain  that  culture  which  comes  not  simply 
from  things  observed  but  from  a  knowledge  of  their  signifi- 
cance and  relationships'. 

The  laboratory  is  designed  to  make  the  study  of  nature  and 
the  observation  of  its  laws  and  principles  practicable  and 
efficient.  Time,  however,  will  not  permit  of  anything  like  an 
exhaustive  study  of  nature  in  this  way;  hence  the  few  things 
that  are  studied  should  be  of  the  most  instructive  type  and 
planned  with  special  reference  to  giving  the  pupil  the  best  pos- 
sible knowledge  of  the  science  and  the  largest  appreciation  of 
nature.  Just  as  the  student  of  art  strives  to  master  model 
types  of  form  and  color,  and  the  student  of  literature  studies 
to  know  and  'appreciate  model  forms  of  literature,  so  the  stu- 
dent in  the  laboratory  should  come  to  see  and  appreciate  im- 
portant types  of  scientific  truth. 


W1ISCONS1N   FREE  HIGH  .SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906. 


The  aim  in  science  teaching  as  in  all  teaching  is  to  develop 
in  the  individual  the  best  and  most  appreciative  correspond- 
ence with  his  environment.  To  this  end,  good  science  teach- 
ing should  secure  to  the  pupil  the  following: 

1.  A  correct  knowledge  of  the  facts  of  nature,  and  a  sufficiently 

extensive  acquaintance  with  these  facts  to  furnish  a  suit- 
able basis  for  the  study  of  the  science. 

2.  Skill  and  facility  in  the  use  of  aids  to  the  interpretation  of 

nature,  as  seen  in  the  useful  instruments  and  apparatus  of 
the  laboratories. 

3.  A  well  grounded  knowledge  of  the  simple  elements   of  the 

science  as  a  science,  that  is,  of  the  present  system  of  clas- 
sified knowledge  on  that  subject. 

4.  Excellence  in  the  use  of  scientific  language  as  the  medium 

for  the  exact  expression  of  truth. 

5.  Training  that  will  make  for  skill  and  efficiency  in  the  prac- 

tical applications  of  knowledge. 

6.  Culture,  both  intellectual  and  ethical.     Among  the  elements 

of  culture  that  good  science  teaching  should  impart  are: 

1.  Habits  of  correct  observation. 

2.  Power  to  visualize  knowledge. 

3.  Due  appreciation   for  the  nature   and  value  of  evi- 

dence as  a  basis  for  correct  thinking. 

4.  Love  for  and  devotion  to  truth  based  upon  scientific- 

ally established  premises. 

5.  A  mind  disciplined  to  presistent  and  unbiased  search 

for  truth. 

The  pupil's  knowledge. will  be  derived  from  three  sources: 

1.  From  observation  and  induction. 

2.  From  the  text  books  and  scientific  literature. 

3.  From  instruction. 

These  three  sources  should  be  well  balanced  since  each  con- 
tributes elements  of  value  not  derivable  from  the  others. 

Observation  and  induction  implies  a  good  laboratory  with 
good  facilities  for  studying  such  types  of  phenomena  as  will 
contribute  most  to  the  scientific  growth  of  the  pupil.  It  im- 
plies also  that  the  supervision  in  the  laboratory  will  be  such  as 
to  secure  from  the  pupil  the  most  thoughtful  consideration  of 
the  phenomena  observed. 

The  text  book  and  scientific  literature  are  the  teacher's  chief 
aids  in  furnishing  a  carefully  collected  body  of  information  on 
the  subject,  in  presenting  this  information  in  an  orderly  and 
systematic  manner,  and  in  contributing  suitable  material  for 
stimulating  and  directing  interest  and  observation. 

Instruction,  the  third  source,  should  be  used  to  direct  the 
pupil's  mind  into  the  right  channels  of  effort,  to  correct  erron- 


22  WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL,  MANUAL,   1906. 

eous  impressions,  and  to  aid  in  securing  those  broad  truths 
and  generalizations  which  may  not  be  obtained  without  help. 
Good  instruction  will  do  much  also  to  give  the  pupil  an  apti- 
tude for  the  lifelong  pursuit  of  scientific  knowledge. 

There  should  be  a  good  reference  library  for  every  science 
taught,  and  the  books  should  be  kept  in  a  suitable  case  readily 
accessible  to  the  pupils  in  their  daily  work. 

The  teacher  should  generally  avoid  the  use  of  the  recitation 
period  for  experimental  purposes;  but  when  experiments  are 
introduced  they  should  be  brief  and  should  afford  a  simple 
illustration  of  an  important  and  not  clearly  apprehended  truth. 

Kecitations  in  science  should  be  topical  both  in  the  assign- 
ment for  preparation  and  in  the  class  room  discussion.  At  the 
close  of  the  discussion  and  for  review  purposes,  the  quiz  finds 
its  proper  place  and  is  one  of  the  most  important  factors  in  a 
good  recitation  in  science.  It  should  be  sharp  and  searching, 
and  should  show  whether  the  pupil  has  a  clear  and  presentable 
knowledge  of  the  truths  in  question.  But  the  quiz  should 
never  be  permitted  to  take  the  place  of  individual  initiative  on 
the  part  of  the  pupil  in  discussing  the  topic. 

The  laboratory  work  should  be  closely  correlated  with  the 
class  work.  The  experiments  should  be  performed  under  the 
supervision  and  direction  of  a  competent  teacher.  The  pupils 
should  be  taught  by  instruction  and  by  example  to  care  for  the 
apparatus  and  facilities  of  the  laboratory,  and  should  not  be 
permitted  to  use  the  laboratory  for  any  but  earnest  purposeful 
scientific  work.  These  habits  once  formed  contribute  much 
toward  the  best  scientific  spirit  and  culture.  The  note  book 
is  an  indispensable  adjunct  of  good  laboratory  work  and  should 
contain  the  actual  observations  made  by  the  pupil  during  the 
progress  of  the  experiment.  But  laboratory  work  which  ends 
with  note  book  records  is  a  failure.  The  pupil  should  be  re- 
quired to  make  such  discussion,  oral  or  written,  of  his 
notes  and  observations  as  will  bring  to  his  consciousness  the 
knowledge  of  the  significance  and  scientific  relationships  of 
the  data  thus  obtained. 


PHYSICS. 

This  subject  is  almost  universally  taken  during  the  entire 
fourth  year  in  the  free  high  schools  of  Wisconsin.  It  is  not  an 
optional  study,  but  is  required  of  all  pupils  in  all  courses. 

This  latter  fact  is  an  especially  important  factor  in  determin- 
ing both  the  general  purposes  of  the  study  and  the  subject  mat- 
ter. The  pupils  vary  greatly  in  the  amount  of  experience  and 
knowledge  which  the  teacher  may  assume  them  to  have  as  a 


WISCONSIN    FREE   HIGH    SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906.        .    23 


basis  upon  which  to  build.  Some  of  the  class  may  have  ac- 
quired a  large  fund  of  information  in  regard  to  the  physical 
facts  around  them,  and  may  have  that  interest  which  will  make 
them  ready  to  do  hard,  effective  work.  Others,  often  a  major- 
ity, are  not  possessed  of  an  inquiring  mind  in  this  direction;- 
their  interest  is  yet  to  be  aroused;  they  must  be  taught  the  sim- 
plest fundamental  facts;  the  circle  of  their  mental  horizon  must 
be  widened,  new  interests  awakened,  and  respect  aroused  for 
those  workers  who  first  found  out  these  things.  To  such  pu- 
pils the  study  is  especially  valuable,  coming  as  it  does  just  as 
they  are  leaving  school  to  carry  last  impressions  away  with 
them. 

.To  reach  these  results  the  teacher  must  constantly  keep 
in  mind  the  need  of  emphasizing  the  relations  of  the  study  to 
daily  life  and  interests.  Comparatively  few  high  school  stu- 
dents are  prepared  to  pursue  the  subject  by  exact,  scientific, 
quantitative  methods.  Perhaps  no  other  study,  however,  lends 
itself  so  readily  to  such  variations  of  assignment  to  fit  individ- 
ual needs;  thus  an  experiment  may  be  made  qualitative  to  one 
pupil  and  quantitative  to  another,  certain  problems  and  demon- 
strations be  made  honorary,  etc. 

Of  all  branches  in  the  high  school  course,  physics  has  per- 
haps the  greatest  range  of  values  as  a  subject  for  the  fourth 
year  in  giving  review  and  training  in  other  lines,  especially 
needed  at  the  close  of  the  course,  while  gaining  knowledge  of 
the  facts  of  the  science.  Such  review  and  training  need  not 
hinder  the  main  work,  but  will  rather  make  it  more  effective. 
One  of  these  secondary  lines  is  that  relating  to  mathematics. 
Many  of  the  problems ,  equations ,  and  demonstration  s  have  a  prac- 
tical application  which  the  pupil  has,  perhaps,  never  met  with 
before.  The  arithmetic,  algebra,  and  geometry  called  for  are  in- 
struments used  for  a  purpose,— that  of  securing  some  definite 
knowledge.  When  the  student  has  worked  out  the  various  equa- 
tions of  acceleration  of  force  as  applied  in  the  laws  of  falling  bodies, 
and  has  acquired  facility  in  determining  any  one  of  the  factors 
when  others  are  given;  or  when  he  has  mathematically,  graph- 
ically and  experimentally  proved  the  laws  of  the  inclined  plane, 
and  has  found  that  all  these  methods  lead  to  the  same  conclus- 
ions, mathematics  has  a  significance  undreamed  of  before.  Many 
of  the  mathematical  problems  can  be  verified  experimentally.  For 
instance,  in  the  Torricellian  experiment,  the  height  of  the  col- 
umn of  mercury  may  be  found  by  experiment,  the  capacity  of 
the  tube  calculated,  and  the  result  verified  by  weighing  the 
mercury;  the  accuracy  of  the  whole  may  be  tested  by  the 
barometer.  Such  work,  through  its  definiteness  and  practical 
nature,  tends  to  counteract  the  inclination  toward  superficiality 
in  the  study  of  a  science,  making  it  well-balanced,  and  giving 


24  WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH  -SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906. 


training  of  the  highest  value.  On  the  other  hand,  much  of  the 
mathematical  work  given  in  the  majority  of  the  texts  in  use,  is 
so  difficult  and  deals  with  units  so  imperfectly  comprehended 
by  the  pupil,  that  the  operations  become  to  him  a  mere  indef- 
inite striving  after  a  numerical  result,  which  when  it  is  reached 
cannot  be  tested,  and  means  practically  nothing  to  him. 

The  study  of  physics  also  affords  excellent  opportunity  for 
training  in  English.  The  subject  is  broken  up  into  so  many 
practically  independent  topics,  each  leading  back  to  fundamental 
principles,  that  it  affords  the  best  of  material  for  extended  oral 
and  written  composition.  The  study  of  the  compound  micro- 
scope may  serve  as  an  illustration.  This  naturally  begins  with 
the  fundamental  theory  of  light,  follows  through  refraction, 
lenses,  and  the  formation  of  images,  until  the  full  explanation 
of  the  instrument  is  reached.  There  are  many  such  topics 
which  may  be  used  as  material  for  extended  exercises  likely  to 
be  needed  by  seniors. 

If  papers  are  required  they  may  be  written  as  tests  in  the 
school  room;  or  they  may  be  prepared  entirely  outside  and  a 
definite  time  given  for  their  presentation,  as  is  done  in  the  case 
of  a  thesis.  Supplementary  material  and  all  sources  of  infor- 
mation should  be  freely  used,  and,  if  thought  best,  the  outline 
may  be  worked  out  in  the  daily  recitation.  The  final  form  and 
language,  however,  must  be  the  pupil's  own. 

(See  Hall's  "Adolescence,"  Vol.  2,  pp.  148-160). 


LABORATORY   WORK. 

From  forty  to  fifty  fundamental  principles  and  applications 
should  be  thoroughly  illustrated  by  experiments.  These  ex- 
periments should  be  shown  by  the  teacher,  the  same  or  similar 
ones  performed  by  the  pupil,  and  studied  until  a  clear  under- 
standing of  their  nature  and  purpose  is  gained.  These  do  not 
include  all  of  the  laboratory  work,  but  are  for  the  one  object 
which  should  be  kept  steadily  in  view,  the  acquirement  of  an 
understanding  of  fundamental  principles.  Many  of  them  give 
opportunity  for  either  qualitative  or  quantitative  treatment, 
and  (if  the  class  has  the  proper  school  spirit)  the  abler  pupils 
can  be  easily  led  to  do  more  advanced  work  than  can  be  done 
by  the  rest  of  the  class. 

The  following  list  includes  more  than  the  number  indicated 
above,  and  selections  may  be  made  to  suit  conditions: 

Presence  of  superficial  films. 

Contractility  of  liquid  films. 

Diffusion  of  liquids. 

Capillary  attraction. 

Composition  of  three  forces  in  a  plane. 


WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH  iSCHOOL  MANUAL,   1906.  25 


The  pendulum — law  of  length. 

Pulleys. 

Levers. 

Pressure  of  liquids  in  all  directions. 

Transmission  of  pressure  in  liquids. 

Pressure  on  bottom  of  vessel. 

Upward  pressure  in  liquids. 

Effect  on  weight  of  a  body  by  submerging  it  in  different  liquids. 

Principle  of  Archimedes. 

Specific  gravity  of  a  solid  heavier  than  water. 

Specific  gravity  of  a  solid  lighter  than  water. 

Specific  gravity  of  a  liquid. 

Specific  gravity  of  a  substance  which  will  dissolve  in  water. 

To   show   that   a   floating  body  will  sink  until  it  displaces  its  own 

weight  of  the  liquid. 
Barometer. 
Siphon. 

Tension  of  confined  gas  (air). 
Boyle's  law. 

Boiling  point  and  pressure. 
Testing  a  thermometer. 
Dew  point. 

Fluid  currents  caused  by  heat. 
Expansion  by  heating. 
Heat  of  fusion  of  ice. 
Number  of  vibrations  in  tone. 
Vibration  in  segments  of  cords  and  plates. 
Resonance  of  air  column. 
Vibrating  strings -law  of  length. 
Vibrating  strings— law  of  tension. 
Umbra  and  penumbra  of  shadow. 
Images  by  apertures. 
Intensity  of  light  at  different  distances. 
Photometer. 

Regular  and  irregular  reflection. 
Refraction  of  ray  of  light  in  water. 
Position  of  image  in  plane  mirror. 
To  show  experimentally,  facts  demonstrated  graphically  in  regard  to 

the  formation  of  images  in  concave  and  convex  mirror. 
Location  of  image  formed  by  convex  lens 
Kinds  and  action  of  electricity  by  friction. 
Polarization  by  induction. 
Charging  by  induction. 
The  simple  voltaic  cell. 
Electrolysis. 

Lines  of  force  in  a  magnetic  field. 
Lines  of  force  around  a  wire  carrying  a  current. 
Electromagnet. 

Effect  of  cutting  lines  of  force  by  a  closed  coil. 
Effect  on  secondary  coil  of  making  or  breaking  circuit  in  primary. 
Heating  and  lighting  effect  of  current  due  to  resistance. 


2Q  WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,,   1906. 


LABORATORY   EQUIPMENT. 

Apparatus  should  be  selected  for  service,  not  for  show. 
Hence,  every  piece  purchased  should  be  substantially  made 
and  should  be  well  calculated  to  aid  in  the  study  of  some  im- 
portant physical  principle.  Generally,  in  purchasing  a  first 
equipment  it  will  be  best  for  schools  to  be  guided  in  the  selec- 
tion by  such  a  list  as  that  presented  below.  The  list  includes 
standard  apparatus  that  has  come  into  use  in  the  best  high 
school  laboratories  of  the  country.  It  represents  a  fairly  good 
equipment  for  a  new  high  school,  both  for  variety  and  for  com- 
pleteness, but  should  be  added  to  as  the  school  advances.  The 
entire  list  named  can  be  purchased  for  from  $250  to  $300. 

LIST  OF  APPARATUS. 

For  work  in  general  physical  measurement. 

Meter  sticks  sufficient  to  supply  class. 

Vernier  caliper,  metric  system. 

Graduated  glass  cylinder,  500  cc. 

Graduated  glass  cylinder,  100  cc. 

Graduate  English  measure. 

Set  liter  measures. 

Jolly  balance,  cheap  form. 

Harvard  balance. 

Horn  pan  balance,  6  in. 

Spring  balance,  30  Ib  ,  15  kg. 

Three  spring  balances.  8  oz.,  250  g. 

Set  universal  iron  weights  with  hooks  10  g.  to  1  kg. 

Set  brass  weights,  in  block,  100  grams  to  1  centigram. 

Set  avoirdupois  weights,  1  oz.  to  2  Ibs.,  with  hooks. 

Iron  support. 

Iron  tripod. 
For  work  in  mechanics  of  solids. 

Set  pulleys— 1  fixed  single,  1  mov.  single,  1  each  double,  1  triple. 

Wheel  and  axle. 

Iron  ball  4  in.  in  diameter,  with  hook. 

Small  brass  ball  with  hook  to  use  for  experiments  with  pendulum. 
For  work  in  mechanics  of  fluids. 

Universal  Hydrometer,  that  is  one  that  may  be  used  for  liquids  either 
lighter  or  heavier  than  water. 

Boyle's  law  tube. 

Set  capillary  tubes. 

Air  pump. 

Seven-in-one  apparatus. 

Barometer  tube. 

Pascal's  vases. 
For  work  in  sound. 

Sonometer. 

Tuning  fork,  256  vibrations. 

Second  tuning  fork  of  different  pitch. 

Tall  glass  cylinder  without  lip,  50  cm.  or  more  high. 

Whirling  machine. 


WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH  SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906.  27 


Savart  wheel  for  whirling  machine,  4  rows  holes. 

Chladni's  plate  with  clamp. 

Cello  bow  for  Chladni's  plate. 
For  work  in  heat. 

Thermometer  3  scale. 

Two  chemical  thermometers,  double  scale. 

Glass  bulb,  about   lOOcc.,  with  long  #tem  for  use  as  air  thermometer 
and  for  study  of  liquid  and  gas  expansion,  etc. 

Apparatus  A. 

Ball  and  ring  for  studying  expansion  of  solids. 

Pulse  glass. 
For  work  in  light. 

Lamp. 

Concave  and  convex  mirror. 

Set  lenses. 

Glass  prism. 

Color  discs. 
For  work  in  electricity  and  magnetism. 

Glass  rod,  rubber  rod,  catskin,  and  pieces  of  flannel  and  silk  cloth. 

Frictional  machine. 

Insulated  conductor. 

Leyden  jar. 

Demonstration  voltaic  cell. 

Battery.  6  cells. 

Bar  magnets  in  box. 

Horseshoe  magnet. 

Electro  magnet. 

Primary  and  secondary  coil. 

Induction  coil,  14  in-  spark,  sliding  coil. 

D'Arsonal  galvanometer,  cheap  form. 

Magnetic  compass. 

Resistance  box  1  to  100  ohms  (cheap  form). 

The  following  are  ,some  of  the  pieces  which  should  be  added 
as  soon  as  circumstances  will  permit: 

Model  steam  engine. 
Electric  bell. 
Telephone. 
Telegraph. 
Dynamo,  motor,  etc. 

In  addition  to  the  above  there  should  be  the  equipment  of 
ordinary  supplies  of  glass  and  rubber  tubing,  plain  and  insu- 
lated wire  of  different  sizes,  corks,  mercury,  sheet  rubber,  etc., 
and  a  few  tools  such  as  pincers,  hammer,  saw,  plane,  stock 
and  bits,  etc. 

Some  of  the  pieces  in  the  list  which  are  used  in  individual 
experiments  should  be  duplicated,  unless  the  school  is  very 
small. 


SUGGESTIONS. 

The  field  of  original  investigation  is  beyond  the  high  school 
student;  it  belongs  to  the  college  post-graduate. 


28  WISCONSIN  FREE  HIGH  /SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906. 


Experiments  for  display  and  entertainment  are  appropriate 
for  evening  shows,  but  are  not  productive  of  the  best  results 
for  the  student  of  science. 

Laboratories  should  be  provided  with  suitable  tables  and 
blackboards.  They  should  be  well  lighted  and  provided  with 
means  for  darkening  the  windows. 

The  pupils  can,  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher,  make 
much  simple  but  useful  apparatus  outside  of  school  hours. 
The  caution  here  is,  however,  to  employ  the  pupils  as  students 
of  science,  not  as  carpenters  and  blacksmiths. 


PHYSIOLOGY. 

The  work  in  physiology  should  cover,  in  a  general  way,  the 
work  outlined  in  any  good  text-book.  The  study  should  be 
made  as  objective  as  possible,  special  emphasis  being  given  to 
diagramming  organs  and  systems  at  the  time  they  are  studied, 
and  suggested  experiments  made  when  possible.  Too  much 
attention  should  not  be  given  to  details,  but  the  fundamentals 
should  be  thoroughly  taught. 

The  work  should  give  to  the  student  a  clear  idea  of  the  living 
body,  the  divisions  of  bodies  into  organic  and  inorganic,  into 
plants  and  animals;  of  what  is  meant  by  the  structure  of  a 
body,  anatomy,  physiology,  hygiene,  cell  tissue,  membrane, 
gland,  muscle,  tendon,  blood  vessel,  nerve,  lymphatic,  bone, 
and  joint.  There  should  also  be  a  clear  notion  of  the  kin'ds  of 
work  done  in  the  human  body  and  of  the  systems  by  which  it 
is  accomplished. 

The  knowledge  of  the  digestive  system  should  include  a 
knowledge  of  what  constitutes  food,  and  the  classes  of  food 
which  are  taken  into  the  system,  together  with  a  knowledge  of 
the  system  as  a  whole,  the  function  and  structure  of  its  organs, 
including  the  mouth,  tongue,  testh,  salivary  glands,  pharynx, 
esophagus,  stomach,  pancreas,  liver,  small  intestine,  and  large 
intestine.  There  should  also  be  a  clear  understanding  of  and 
ability  to  diagram  the  two  routes  by  which  the  digested  food 
goes  into  circulation  (by  bloodvessels  and  lymphatics),  as  well 
as  the  ability  to  trace  the  steps  in  the  digestion  of  the  differ- 
ent classes  of  food,  and  to  state  the  laws  of  hygiene  for  the 
system. 

In  connectfon  with  the  circulatory  system,  students  should 
be  able  to  give  the  plan  of  the  system  as  a  whole,  the  function 
and  structure  of  the  organs  of  circulation,  including  the  heart, 
arteries,  capillaries,  and  veins;  to  show  the  structure,  compo- 
sition, and  function  of  the  blood,  and  to  explain  by  diagram 
the  pulmonic  and  the  systemic  circulation,  to  show  the  changes 


WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH  (SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906.  £9 


which  the  blood  undergoes  in  the  lungs  and  capillaries,  how 
animal  heat  is  produced  and  how  regulated,  and  what  is  meant 
by  congestion,  inflammation,  a  cold,  and  a  fever. 

A  knowledge  of  the  respiratory  system  should  include  a 
knowledge  of  the  purpose  of  respiration,  the  structure  and 
function  of  the  organs  of  the  system,  the  movements  in  respir- 
ation, the  chemical  changes  which  result  from  it,  the  consequent 
importance  of  ventilation,  and  Nature's  provisions  for  keeping 
the  air  pure.  The  dissection  of  the  heart  and  lungs  of  a  sheep 
or  other  mammal,  and  a  diagram  of  the  circulatory  and  respir- 
atory systems  combined,  would  be  of  value  to  the  student  at 
this  point. 

The  study  of  the  secretory  system  should  result  in  knowledge 
of  the  secretory  organs  and  the  functions  of  their  secretions. 
The  organs  thus  studied  should  include  the  muncusand  serous 
membranes,  synovial  membranes,  salivary  glands,  lining  mem- 
branes of  the  stomach  and  intestines,  liver,  pancreas,  oil  glands, 
lachrymal  glands,  and  the  lining  of  the  ear. 

The  knowledge  of  the  absorbent  system  should  include  the 
method  by  which  the  waste  matter  is  taken  from  the  tissues 
and  expelled  from  the  body  as  perspiration,  and  by  the  lungs, 
and  kidneys.  In  this  connection,  there  should  be  a  study  of 
the  skin,  its  structure,  appendages,  and  functions. 

As  the  result  of  the  work  on  the  osseous  system  students 
should  be  able  to  give  the  composition,  structure,  classes,  and 
use  of  bones;  the  parts  of  the  skeleton  in  the  head,  trunk,  upper 
and  lower  extremities;  means  by  which  parts  of  the  skeleton 
are  united,  kinds  of  joints,  and  the  hygiene  of  bones,  especially 
with  relation  to  children. 

For  the  muscular  system  there  should  be  a  knowledge  of  the 
structure,  function,  general  arrangement,  position,  and  attach- 
ment of  muscles,  together  with  rules  of  hygiene,  in  connection 
with  exercise  and  rest. 

As  a  result  of  the  study  of  the  nervous  system,  the  student 
should  be  able  to  show  the  necessity  of  a  nervous  system,  to 
diagram  in  a  general  way  the  cerebro-spinal  and  the  sympa- 
thetic systems,  to  describe  the  two  kinds  of  nerve  tissue,  with 
the  function  of  each,  to  illustrate  and  explain  what  is  meant 
by  an  impression,  sensation,  and  reflex  nervous  action;  to  dia- 
gram and  state  the  function  of  the  parts  of  the  brain  and  spinal 
cord,  to  describe  by  diagram  the  crossing  of  the  nerve  fibers 
in  the  cord  and  the  medulla  oblongata,  and  to  show  the  effect 
of  injury  to  either  side  of  the  brain  or  spinal  cord,  and  to  trace 
the  course  of  the  nerve  current  in  reflex  action;  to  show  the 
knowledge  gained  through  each  sense  acting  alone,  and  to  dia- 
gram the  nerves  of  the  ear  and  eye,  describing  by  means  of  the 
diagrams  acts  of  hearing  and  of  seeing,  and  to  show  reasons 
for  defective  hearing  and  vision. 


30  WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,   1906. 

There  should  be  a  clear  notion  of  the  action  of  alcohol  and 
other  stimulants  and  narcotics  upon  the  human  body. 

PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

This  is  a  branch  of  study  that  involves  the  elements  of  all  the 
sciences.  It  is  therefore  necessary  for  the  instructor  before 
he  begins  the  subject  to  ascertain  what  knowledge  the  pupils 
have  of  botany,  physics,  geology,  astronomy,  chemistry,  etc. 
If  they  have  had  training  in  nature  work  and  elementary 
science  in  the  grades,  the  study  of  physical  geography  may  not 
be  found  difficult. 

The  aim  of  the  teacher  in  physical  geography  should  be  to 
have  the  pupil  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  relation  of  earth  to 
man,  which  must  necessarily  involve  a  thorough  study  of  the 
immediate  environment  of  man. 

After  establishing  a  definite  aim  for  each  recitation,  the 
teacher  should  carefully  ascertain  what  things  the  pupil  must 
know  in  order  to  realize  this  aim;  what  of  these  things  are  now 
known,  and  proceed  accordingly  with  the  instruction,  teaching 
what  remains  to  be  known. 

As  text-books  differ  in  the  subject-matter  treated,  it  is  recom- 
mended that  the  study  of  physical  geography  shall  include  the 
following  general  considerations,  consuming  the  time  allotted 
to  the  subject  in  the  high  school. 

1.  The  earth  as  a  planet  and  its  relation  to  the  solar  system. 

2.  A  brief  geological  history  of  the  earth  with  special  reference  to  Wis- 

consin and  the  United  States. 

3.  The  land  distribution  and  the  relief  of  its  various  divisions, — vol- 

canoes and  earthquakes. 

4.  The  water  distribution,  continental  drainage,  erosion,  waves,  tides, 

ocean  currents,  glaciers,  and  geysers. 

5.  1  he  atmospheric  movements  and  their  causes,  with  a  careful  study 

of  climate  and  its  causes. 
If  time  permits,  the  following  subjects  may  be  pursued: 

6.  The  human  race  as  distributed. 

7.  The  animals  and  plants  as  distributed. 

8.  The  economic  products,  including  variety  of  soil,  distribution  and 

use  of  coal,  ores,  building  stone  and  natural  gas. 

The  practical  side  of  the  subject  should  not  be  neglected.  The 
rivers,  creeks,  lakes,  hills,  valleys,  railroad  cuts,  storms,  the 
sky,  day  and  night, — all  furnish  an  opportunity  for  personal 
observation.  The  laboratory  will  probably  furnish  apparatus 
for  demonstration,  such  as: 

A  thermometer. 

A  barometer  (its  construction  should  be  taught). 

A  centrifugal  hoop. 

An  electrical  machine. 


WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH  'SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906.  31 


Bar  magnets. 
Magnetic  needles. 

Ball   and  ring  to  show  expansion  and  contraction. 
Air  pump. 

A  prism  or  spectroscope. 

Relief  maps,  a  good  globe  or  tellurian,  and  a  spherical  blackboard  areT 
needed  in  this  study. 


BOTANY. 

The  work  in  botany  in  the  high  schools  of  the  state  is  not 
uniform  either  in  regard  to  the  subject  matter  or  to  the  method 
of  treatment.  Much  of  this  difference  must  necessarily  con- 
tinue to  exist,  since  a  school  thoroughly  equipped  with  appar- 
atus and  having  a  special  teacher  naturally  can  undertake  a 
more  extended  line  of  work  than  one  not  having  these  facilities. 
Authorities,  too,  differ  widely  in  their  views  as  to  how  the 
subject  should  be  treated,  and  even  the  same  author  sends  out 
several  editions  of  his  text  with  many  changes. 

Under  these  conditions  no  definite  course  can  be  outlined 
which  will  apply  to  all  schools.  Certain  general  conclusions 
may  be  stated,  however,  which  will  serve  as  a  guide  in  the 
selection  of  texts  and  in  determining  what  to  take  and  what  to 
omit  from  any  given  book.  The  work  should  begin  with  what 
the  pupil  has  seen,  or  with  what  he  readily  can  see  with  the 
simple  dissecting  glass.  Neither  the  schools  nor  the  teachers 
are  ready  for  the  scientific  work  needed  in  beginning  with  the 
lower  forms  of  life.  The  compound  microscope  is  not  a  suit- 
able instrument  for  use  by  pupils  in  the  first  or  second  year  of 
the  high  school  in  doing  independent  and  original  work  in  the 
study  of  the 'minute  structure  of  plant  life.  It  has  a  legitimate 
place,  however,  in  demonstrating  facts  learned  by  pupils  in 
regard  to  minute  structures. 

The  course  should  include  some  study  of  the  lower  forms,  es- 
pecially of  such  fungi  as  have  great  economic  importance  such 
as  bacteria,  yeast,  various  rusts,  and  mushrooms.  These 
should  be  studied  in  their  gross  forms  without  using  the 
compound  microscope  other  than  as  indicated  above. 

In  localities  in  which  farming  is  of  great  interest,  agricul- 
tural botany  should  be  made  prominent.  If  a  year  is  given  to 
the  subject,  as  is  now  so  commonly  done,  during  the  winter 
some  time  may  well  be  given  to  the  definite  study  of  agricul- 
ture using  a  text  book  as  a  basis;  as  much  time  will  still  be 
left  for  botany  as  has  been  generally  given  in  the  past. 
Again,  instead  of  stock  specimens  for  study  and  illustration, 
plants  which  are  of  economic  interest  as  friends  or  foes  should 
be  used.  They  should  be  studied  fully,  not  only  as  to  their 


32  WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH   SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906. 

anatomy  and  morphology,  but  alsotheir  physiology  and  ecology. 
Some  time  should  be  given  to  a  study  of  the  more  prominent 
flora  of  the  home  region  including  the  characteristics  and  ap- 
pearance of  the  trees,  woods,  etc. 

Such  work  is  better  adapted  to  the  smaller  and  medium-sized 
schools  than  the  extended  work  in  the  lower  forms  so  often  un- 
dertaken. Large  and  well  equipped  city  schools  where  agri- 
cultural interests  are  not  prominent;  may,  profitably  perhaps, 
do  more  with  lower  forms. 

The  following  is  a  course  adopted  with  more  or  less  modifi- 
cation in  a  large  number  of  states,  and  represents  substantially 
the  attitude  of  botanists  in  this  country  in  regard  to  the  con- 
tent of  a  one-year  course. 

The  division  into  parts  is  not  intended  to  imply  that  each 
topic  is  to  be  studied  separately.  The  morphology,  physiology 
and  ecology  should  ba  treited  as  needed  in  the  study  of  the 
plant. 

As  stated  above,  it  is  not  expscted  that  any  but  the  largest 
and  best  equipped  high  schools  will  undertake  the  extended 
study  of  the  lower  forms.  (See  Hall's  "Adolescence"  Vol.  2, 
p.  p.  148-160:  (Appletons),  and  "Lloyd  and  Bigelo w' s"  "Teaeh- 
of  Biology",  p.  p.  125-128.) 


A.    MORPHOLOGY. 

1.  The  seed.     Four  representatives   (dicotyledon  without  and 

with  endosperm,  a  monocotyledon,  and  a  gymnosperm); 
structure  and  homologous  parts.  Food  supply;  experi- 
mental determination  of  its  nature  and  value.  Phenomena 
of  germination  and  growth  of  embryo  into  a. seedling  (in- 
cluding bursting  from  the  seed,  assumption  of  position,  and 
unfolding  of  parts). 

2.  The  shoot.     Gross  anatomy  of  a  representative  shoot;  the  ar- 

rangement of  leaves  and  buds  on  the  stem;  and  deviations 
(through  light  adjustment,  etc.)  from  symmetry. 
Buds  and  the  mode  of  origin  of  new  leaf  and  stem;  winter 
buds  in  particular.     Specialized,  and    metamorphosed   shoots 
(stems  and  leaves).     General  structure  and  distribution  of  the 
leading  tissues  of  the  shoot;  annual  growth;   shedding  of  bark 
and  leaves. 

3.  The  root.     Gross  anatomy  of  a  representative  root;  position 
L,»  and  origin  of  secondary  roots;  hair-zone,  cap  and  growing- 
point;  origin  of  new  roots. 

Specialized  and  metamorphosed  roots.    General  structure  and 
distribution  of  the  leading  tissues  of  the  root. 

4.  The  flower.     Structure  of  a  representative  flower,  especially 

of  ovule  and  pollen;  nectar  glands;  functions  of  the  parts. 


WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH  .SCHOOL   MANUAL,   190G.  33 

Comparative  morphological  study  of  six  or  more  different, 
marked  types,  with  the  construction  of  transverse  and 
longitudinal  diagrams. 

5.  The  fruit.     Structure  of  a  representative  fruit,  especially  with 

reference  to  changes   from  the  flower,  and  from  ovule  to_ 
seed.     Comparative  morphological   study  of  six  or  more 
marked  types,  with  diagrams.* 

6.  The  cell.     Cytoplasm,  nucleus,  sap-cavity,  wall.     Adaptive 

modification  of  walls,  formation  of  tissues. 

The  precise  sequence  of  topics  in  the  above  outline  is  not  a 
matter  of  importance.  The  study  of  the  cell  should  not  be  post- 
poned for  consideration  by. itself  after  the  other  topics,  as  its  po- 
sition in  the  above  outline  may  seem  to  imply,  but  should  oe 
brought  in  along  with  the  study  of  the  shoot  or  root  and  con- 
tinued from  topic  to  topic.  Although  enough  study  of  the 
individual  cell  is  to  be  made  to  give  an  idea  of  its  structure  (a 
study  which  may  very  advantageously  be  associated  with  the 
physiological  topics  first  mentioned  under  B)  the  principal  mi- 
croscopical work  should  consist  in  the  recognition  and  study  of 
the  distribution  of  the  leading  tissues. 


B.    PHYSIOLOGY. 

1.  Role  of  water  in  the  plant;   absorption   (osmosis),  path  of 

transfer,  transpiration,  turgidity  and  its  mechanical  value, 
plasmalysis. 

2.  Photosynthesis:  dependence  of  starch  formation  upon  chloro- 

phyll, light,  and  carbon  dioxide;  evolution  of  oxygen;  ob- 
servation of  starch  grains. 

3.  Mineral  nutrition:   ability  of  green  plants  and  inability  of 

non-green  plants  (fungi)  to  thrive  upon  the  carbon  dioxide 
of  the  air  and  mineral  solutions. 

4.  Respiration:  necessity  for  oxygen  in  growth,  evolution  of  car- 

bon dioxide. 

5.  Digestion:  digestion  of  starch  with  diastase,  and  the  role  of 

digestion  in  translocation  of  foods. 

6.  Irritability:    jreotropism,   heliotropism,  and  hydrotropism; 

nature  of  stimulus  and  response. 

7.  Growth:  localization  in  higher  plants;  amount  in  germin- 

ating seeds  and  stems;  relationship  to  temperature. 

8.  Fertilization:  sexual  and  vegetative  reproduction. 

Although  for   convenience  of   reference,    the    physiological 
topics  are  here  grouped  together,  they  should  not  be  studied 

*This  comparative  morphological  study  of  flowers  and  fruits  may  advantageously  be 
postponed  until  it  can  be  taken  up  in  connection  with  classification  of  the  angiosperms. 

3 


34  WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH  SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906. 


by  themselves  and  apart  from  anatomy  and  morphology.  On 
the  contrary,  they  should  be  taken  up  along  with  the  study  of 
the  structures  in  which  the  processes  occur,  and  which  they 
help  to  explain;  thus  photosynthesis  should  be  studied  with 
the  leaf,  as  should  also  transpiration,  while  digestion  may  best 
come  with  germination,  osmotic  absorption  with  the  root,  and 
so  on.  The  student  should  either  try,  or  at  least  aid  in  trying, 
experiments  to  demonstrate  the  fundamental  processes  above. 


C.     Ecology. 
• 

1.  Modifications  (metamorphoses)    of  parts  for  special  func- 

tions. 

2.  Dissemination. 

3.  Cross-pollination. 

4.  Light  relations  of  green  tissues;  leaf  mosaics. 

5.  Plant  societies;  mesophytes,  hydrophytes,  halophytes,  xero~ 

phytes;  climbers,  epiphytes,  parasites   (and  saprophytes), 
insectivora.     Symbiosis.; 

6.  Plant  associations,  and  zonal  distribution. 

The  topics  in  ecology,  like  those  in  physiology,  are  to  be 
studied  not  by  themselves,  but  along  with,  and  in  dependence 
upon,  the  structures  with  which  they  are  most  closely  con- 
nected; as,  cross-pollination  with  the  flower,  dissemination 
with  the  seed,  etc.  (5)  and  (6)  may  be  studied  most  advan- 
tageously when  the  student  is  dealing  with  systematic  groups 
under  angiosperms,  and  are  to  be  considered  as  recommended 
rather  than  as  required. 

In  this  connection  field  work  is  of  great  importance,  and  for 
some  topics,  such  as  (6)  indispensable,  though  much  may  be 
done  also  with  photographs,  museum  specimens,  and  potted 
plants  in  greenhouses.  Every  effort  should  be  made  to  make 
the  field  work  in  ecology  systematic  and  definite.  The  tempta- 
tions to  haziness  and  guessing  must  constantlybe  combated. 

The  study  of  systematic  groups  should  be  a  comprehensive 
summary  based  upon  the  thorough  study  of  the  structure,  re- 
production, and  adaptations  to  habitat  of  types  from  each 
group,  supplemented  by  more  rapid  study  of  other  forms  in 
these  groups.  Where  living  material  is  wanting,  some  use 
may  be  made  of  preserved  or  even  pictured  materials.  A 
standard  text-book  should  be  carefully  read.  The  general 
homologies  from  group  to  group  should  be  noted. 

In  general,  in  this  part  of  the  course,  much  less  attention 
should  be  given  to  the  lower,  difficult,  and  inconspicuous 


W1ISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,   1906.  35 


groups,  and  progressively  more  to  the  higher  and  conspicuous 
forms,  and  at  least  one-third  of  the  time  devoted  to  the  groups 
should  be  given  to  the  spermatophytes. 

Attention  should  be  called  throughout  to  the  economics  (re-_ 
lations  to  man's  good  and  injury)  of  the  forms  and  grouplT 
studied. 

Following  is  a  list  of  recommended  types  from  which  selec- 
tions may  be  made: 

D.  In  Classification. 

1.  Algae  Pleurococcus  (or  sphaerella),  spirogyra,  vaucheria, 

Cladophora,  Fucus,  Nemalion  (or  Batrachospermum  or 
Chara  or  Polysiphonia  or  Coleochaete). 

2.  Fungi.     Bacteria,  Rhizopus,  Yeast,  Puccinia  (or  any  Pow- 

dery Mildew),  Mushroom. 

Bacteria  and  Yeast  have  obvious  disadvantages  in  such 
a  course,  but  their  great  economic  prominence  may  jus- 
tify their  introduction. 

3.  Lichens.     Physcia  (or  Parmelia). 

4.  Bryophytes.     In  Hepaticae,  Radula   (or   Porella  or   Mar- 

chantia).    In  Musci,  Mnium  (or  Funaria  or  Polytrichum). 

5.  Pteridophytes.     In  Filicineae,  Aspidium  (or  equivalent), 

including  of  course  the  prothallus. 
In  Equisetineae,  Equisetum. 
In  Lycopodineae,  Lycopodium,  and  Selaginella  (or  Isoetes). 

6.  Gymnosperms.     Pinus  or  equivalent. 

7.  Angiosperms.     A  monocotyledon  and  a  dicotyledon,  to  be 

studied  with  reference  to  the  homologies  of  their  parts 
with  those  in  the  above  groups;  together  with  the  repre- 
sentative plants  of  the  leading  subdivisions  and  principal 
families  of  angiosperms. 

Classification  should  include  a  study  of  the  primary  subdivi- 
sions of  the  above  groups,  based  on  the  comparison  of  the  types 
with  other  (preferably)  living  or  preserved  material.  The  prin- 
cipal subdivisions  of  the  spermatophytes,  grouped  on  the  Engler 
and  Prantl  plan,  should  be  understood. 

The  ability  to  use  manuals  for  the  determination  of  the  spe- 
cies of  flowering  plants  is  not  considered  essential  in  this 
course,  though  it  is  desirable.  It  should  not  be  introduced  to 
the  exclusion  of  any  other  work,  but  may  well  be  made  volun- 
tary work  for  those  showing  a  taste  for  it.  It  should  not  be 
limited  to  learning  names  of  plants,  but  should  be  made  a 
study  in  the  plan  of  classification  as  well. 

The  preparation  of  an  herbarium  is  not  required  nor  recom- 
mended except  as  voluntary  work  for  those  with  a  taste  for 
collecting.  If  made,  it  should  not  constitute  a  simple  accumu- 


36  WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH  SCHOOL  MANUAL,   1906. 

lation  of  species,  but  should  represent  some  distinct  idea  of 
plant  associations,  of  morphology,  of  representation  of  the 
groups,  etc. 

NOTE.— The  classification  is  given  here  to  show  the  entire  course  as  pub- 
lished, and  not  with  the  thought  that  the  work  in  the  lower  forms  will  be 
given  except  as"  indicated  in  the  introductory  directions. 

REFERENCE   BOOKS   IN  BOTANY. 

Coulter: 

Plant  relations — Appleton. 

Plant  structures — Appleton. 
Bailey,  Lessons  with  plants — Macmillan. 
Bergen,  Glimpses  of  the  plant  world — Ginn. 
Gray,  Lessons  in  botany     American  Book  Co. 
Allen,  The  story  of  the  plants— Appleton. 
Campbell,  University  text-book  of  botany— Macmillan. 
MacDougal,  Experimental  plant  physiology— Holt. 
Gray,  Field,  forest,  and  garden  botany  -  American  Boo!    Co. 
Schimper.  Plant  geography—  Clarendon  Press. 
Bailey,  Garden  making— Macmillan. 
Lubbock,  Flowers,  fruits,  and  leaves— Macmillan. 
Conn,  The  story  of  germ  life— Appleton. 
Pruden,  T.  Mitchel,  Dust  and  its  dangers — Putnams. 

THEORY  AND  ART  OF  TEACHING. 

Section  496a^  (as  amended  by  Chapter  439,  Laws  of  1903) 
requires  each  free  high  school  to  offer  at  least  a  twelve  weeks' 
course  of  instruction  each  year  in  the  theory  and  art  of  teach- 
ing; in  the  organization,  management  and  course  of  study  of 
ungraded  schools;  and  in  the  duties  of  citizens  in  the  organiza- 
tion and  administration  of  local  school  systems.  Such  a 
course  of  instruction  shall  be  open  to  all  students  in  the 
school,  and  a  satisfactory  standing  in  the  work  of  this  course 
shall  be  a  condition  precedent  to  the  countersignature  of  a  di- 
ploma held  by  a  graduate  of  the  school  as  prescribed  in  Sec- 
tion 7  of  this  act." 

It  should  be  understood  by  teachers  and  members  of  school 
boards  that  this  is  not  a  study  which  is  of  value  to  those  pupils 
only  who  expect  to  teach  in  the  schools  of  this  state.  The 
pupils  in  the  public  schools  will  soon  be  in  positions  where 
they  will  be  responsible  for  the  development  and  maintenance 
of  those  schools.  The  work  in  Theory  and  Art  of  Teaching 
may  be  so  broadened  as  to  include  a  consideration  of  the 
proper  organization  of  the  public  schools,  the  necessity  for  an 
intelligent  interest  in  their  welfare,  and  in  what  is  necessary  to 
secure  that  welfare. 

This  subject  if  properly  taught,  may  afford  as  valuable  a 
training  for  citizenship  as  any  in  the  course;  it  is  also  of  high 
value  as  a  disciplinary  study. 


WISCONSIN    FREE   HIGH  SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906.  37 

The  best  text  book  for  use  in  the  study  of  pedagogy  is  the 
Manual  of  the  Course  of  Study  for  Common  Schools  issued 
by  the  state  superintendent.  It  should  be  made  the  basis  of 
the  work  in  this  subject.  As  an  aid  to  the  study  of  the  Man-_ 
ual  a  good  reference  library  should  be  provided,  containing 
texts  on  school  management,  pedagogy,  courses  of  study,  etc. 

In  the  study  of  the  Manual  the  teacher   should  emphasize 
the  following: 

I.  How  to  study  the  Manual.  See  that  the  pupils  are  fa- 
miliar with  the  uses  of  the  numbered  paragraphs  for 
cross  references,  and  the  meaning  of  the  divisions  of 
each  subject;  (a)  primary  form,  (b)  middle  form,  (c) 
upper  form. 

II.  It  will  be  observed  that  each  subject  has  a  general  aim 
with  which  the  pupil  should  be  familiar.  Each  form 
has  also  the  three  following  divisions: 

(a)  The  specific  purpose  in  the  work  of  each  subject  in 

each  form. 

(b)  A  course  of  study  with  suggestions  to  teachers  upon 

the  same. 

(c)  Tests  for  promotion. 

III.  Before  leaving  the  study  of  the  Manual  the  members  of 

the  class  should  be  familiar  with  the  tests  for  promo- 
tion of  pupils  from  each  form  in  all  the  branches 
taught  in  the  public  schools. 

IV.  Drill  work  .with   the  class  in  pedagogy  in  daily  recita- 

tion plans  should  give  definite  ideas  of  the  aim  to  be 
accomplished,  and  the  method  of  reaching  it. 

When  time  permits  it  will  be  advisable  to  take  the  class  to 
observe  the  lower  grades  and  to  see  the  principles  of  the  Man- 
ual exemplified.  Some  schools  carry  on  practice  work  in  the 
grades,  but  this  proceeding  is  of  questionable  value  unless  it 
shall  be  directed  and  personally  supervised  by  the  principal. 

When  the  study  of  library  reading  is  begun  it  will  be  well 
for  the  teacher  to  have  a  copy  of  the  List  of  Books  for  Town- 
ship Libraries,  prepared  by  the  state  superintendent,  accessible 
to  the  members  of  the  class.  Some  of  the  books  found  in  this 
list  can  probably  be  obtained  from  the  school  library,  and  defi- 
nite instruction  as  to  the  best  use  of  these  books  should  be 
given. 


38  WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH   SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906. 


MATHEMATICS. 


ARITHMETIC. 

Before  leaving  the  high  school  the  students  should  be  able, 
with  accuracy  and  rapidity,  to  perform  operations  in  reduction, 
addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division  of  simple 
numbers,  of  fractions,  of  decimals,  and  of  denominate  numbers. 
He  should  possess  skill  in  factoring  numbers;  should  be  able 
to  find  the  L.  0.  M.  by  inspection  of  all  numbers  of  two  orders; 
should  be  skillful  in  extraction  of  square  and  cube  roots;  meas- 
uring and  finding  areas  of  rectangles,  triangles,  and  circles;  in 
measuring  and  finding  volumes  of  rectangular  solids,  cylinders, 
cones  and  spheres. 

He  should  be  able  to  form  and  solve  proportions  and  to  ana- 
lyze problems  giving  rise  to  proportions. 

He  should  know  the  fractional  equivalents  of  the  different 
per  cents,  commonly  used,  as  well  as  he  knows  the  multiplica- 
tion table;  be  able  to  find  readily  any  per  cent,  of  a  number; 
to  find  any  number,  knowing  any  per  cent,  of  it;  to  find  what 
per  cent,  one  number  is  of  another.  The  student  should  be 
able  to  change  problems  under  each  of  these  three  general  cases 
to  problems  in  common  fractions  and  in  decimal  fractions,  and 
to  solve  them  as  such.  He  should  be  able  to  apply  the  prin- 
ciples of  percentage  to  operations  in  profit  and  loss,  commission, 
trade  discount,  insurance,  and  taxes,  and  should  be  master  of 
one  good  method  of  computing  interest,  and  be  able  to  determine 
the  amount  due  on  a  note  on  which  partial  payments  have  been 
made. 

When  dealing  with  small,  simple  whole  numbers,  and  with 
common  fractions  whose  denominators  are  twelve  or  less  and 
with  small  compound  denominate  numbers,  he  should  be  able 
to  secure  correct  results  rapidly  without  written  work. 

He  should  be  able  to  give  a  clear  analysis  of  the  work  in  solv- 
ing practical  problems,  and  to  state  in  order  the  processes  in- 


WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH  iSCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906.  39 


volved  in  the  solution  of  problems,  not  only  when  the  work  has 
all  been  performed,  but  when  it  is  indicated  without  being  per- 
formed. 

Much  time  will  be  saved  in  the  work  in  arithmetic,  if  the 
student  will  learn  to  perform  the  fundamental  operations  ac- 
curately, and  in  the  later  portions  of  his  work,  indicate  or  state 
the  operations  to  be  performed  in  the  solution  of  problems  with- 
out actually  performing  them. 

Mental  training  arises  more  largely  from  determining  what 
operations  are  to  be  performed  under  certain  conditions,  than 
in  the  mechanical  performance  of  the  operations  which  are 
always  those  of  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  or  di- 
vision. 

The  student  should  have  the  power  to  state  and  solve  original 
problems,  to  illustrate  general  principles  and  to  furnish  oppor- 
tunities for  applying  the  rules  for  special  cases. 

He  should  be  able  to  state  clearly,  concisely,  and  accurately, 
the  definitions  of  terms  commonly  used  in  arithmetic,  and  to 
illustrate  their  meaning  by  examples  or  otherwise. 

Unless  he  can  improve  upon  the  definitions  given  in  the  books, 
he  should  learn  them  as  there  stated.  This  statement  also  ap- 
plies to  the  rules  for  performing  operations. 

It  is  not  meant  that  th,e  student  should  learn  the  words  of  the 
book  without  a  knowledge  of  their  meaning,  but  that  he  should 
understand  the  meaning  of  terms  in  arithmetic  and  know  how 
to  perform  operations;  then  if  he  cannot  improve  upon  the 
formulation  of  definitions  and  rules  given  in  the  books,  he 
should  learn  those  as  the  orderly  statement  of  what  is  in  his 
mind.  In  the  solution  of  problems,  students  should  be  able  to 
give  reasons  clearly  and  readily  for  each  operation. 

Good  oral  and  written  expression  is  as  essential  as  the  ability 
to  solve  difficult  arithmetical  problems. 


ALGEBRA. 


It  is  now  generally  recognized  that  the  first  year  is  not  suf- 
fient  time  to  give  the  knowledge  of  algebra  which  should  be 
had  by  students  completing  a  high  school  course,  especially  if 
they  wish  to  attend  a  higher  school.  Accordingly,  all  of  the 
newer  courses  provide  for  an  additional  semester  in  the  senior 
year,  during  which  a  review  of  the  fundamental  principles  as 
well  as  new  topics  may  be  given. 


40  WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH   SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906. 


OMISSIONS. 

Certain  omissions  may  be  made  in  the  first  year  from  the 
work  as  usually  given  ,in  text-books,  and  the  time  so  saved 
may  be  used  in  giving  greater  thoroughness  in  what  may  be 
called  the  fundamentals  of  algebra. 

By  this  it  is  not  at  all  meant  that  dawdling  is  to  be  per- 
mitted. 

By  dwelling  too  long  at  the  beginning  upon  mechanical 
operations  which  are  in  constant  use  throughout  the  subject, 
time  is  often  wasted.  Thus  multiplication  and  division  need 
comparatively  little  time  at  the  first  reading,  since  there  is 
constant  practice  afterward. 

The  principal  omissions  are  as  follows: 

1.  Many  of  the  numerous  definitions   given  at  the  beginning 

of  most  books  may  be  either  omitted  entirely  from  the 
first  year  or  touched  on  very  lightly  and  reviewed 
when  needed.  Such  for  example,  are  the  definitions 
of  algebra,  known  and  unknown  quantities,  prime  quan- 
tities, signs  of  equality,  degree  of  a  term,  homogeneous 
terms,  reciprocals-,  etc.  Caution:  Certain  other  definitions 
are  fundamental  and  should  be  memorized  in  an  exact 
form  and  thoroughly  mastered  through  abundant  illustra- 
tion and  constant  drills.  Among  these  are  factor, 
power,  root,  coefficient,  positive  integral  exponent,  term, 
the  common  signs,  and  others  which  will  readily  occur  to 
any  skillful  teacher. 

2.  Extended  explanations  and  proofs  of  laws  of  operations. 

3.  Long  and  involved  examples. 

NOTE. —Many  text-books  give  such  examples,  especially  in  removing 
signs  of  aggregation,  in  multiplication  and  division,  in  complex  fractions 
and  in  exercises  giving  practice  in  equations.  Tn  such  work  the  pupil 
loses  sight  of  the  purpose  of  the  example  and  becomes  absorbed  in  the 
intricate  operations  necessary  to  get  the  answer. 

4.  All  examples  in  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  divi- 

sion, and  factoring  containing  literal  exponents  unless 
they  are  in  very  simple  form. 

5.  All  unusual  forms  in  factoring. 

6.  The  "second  method"  in  H.  C.  D.  and  L.  C.  M. 

7.  Certain  whole  classes  of  problems  in  equations,  clock  prob- 

lems, fox  and  hound  "leap"  problems,  and  "train"  prob- 
lems may  in  most  classes  be  omitted  in  first  year  work 
and  used  as  fresh  exercises  in  giving  review  in  last  year. 

8.  Non-practical    problems  whenever    more   suggestive   ones 

can  be  found. 


WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH   SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906.  41 


WHAT    TO   TAKE    IN   THE    FIRST   YEAR. 

1.  Fundamental  definitions  and  principles  thoroughly  mas-_ 

tered  as  indicated  in  1  above. 

2.  In  every  topic  numerous  short   examples  illustrating  the 

principles  under  consideration.  The  teacher  should 
make  this  work  of  such  a  character  as  will  require 
close  attention  and  vigorous  and  intensive  thought  on 
the  part  of  the  pupil. 

3.  Exercises  throughout  the  work  involving  translation  of  al- 

gebraic into    common  language  or   vice  versa.      Such 
translations  are  especially  valuable  as  exercises  in  Eng- 
^  lish. 

4.  Fundamental  operations,  including  the  usual  special  rules. 

'(See  Note  3  in  omissions.) 

5.  Factoring  including 

(a)  Trinomial  squares. 

(b)  The  difference  of  two  squares. 

(c)  A  trinomial  whose  first  term  is  a  square  and  whose 

last  term  is  a  product  of  two  factors  whose  sum 
into  the  square  root  of  the  first  term  equals  the 
second  term. 

(d)  The  sum  or  difference  of  two  cubes. 

(e)  The  sum  of  the  same  odd  powers  of  two  quantities. 

(f)  The  difference  of  the  same  powers  of  two  quantities. 

6.  II.  C.  D.  and  L.  C.  M.  by  method  of  factoring  only. 

7.  Fractions     (See  3  in  omissions.) 

8.  Simple  equations.     (See  7  in  omissions.) 

9.  Involution   and  evolution.      (Integral  positive  exponents 

only). 

10.  Radicals. 

(a)  Meaning  (without  proof)  of  different  exponents. 

(b)  Simple  work  in  reduction  and  fundamental  opera- 

tions.    (See  3  in  omissions.) 

11.  Solution   of  simple  quadratic  equations.      Solution  of  af- 

fected quadratic  equations  by  completion  of  the  square. 
(Easy  examples.) 

The  above  indicates  a  minimum  of  work  for  the  first  year, 
and  gives  a  sufficient  knowledge  of  algebra  for  use  in  the  suc- 
ceeding years  of  the  high  school.  More  extended  or  difficult 
work  may  often  be  given  to  the  stronger  members  of  the  class. 

The  proper  assignment  will  always  provide  material  suited 
to  the  varying  capabilities  of  the  class.  It  must  give  the 
strongest  members  sufficient  work,  and  at  the  same  time  it 
must  include  a  definite  connected  treatment  of  the  topic  in 
hand  simple  enough  for  the  weaker  pupils.  The  character  of 


42  WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH    SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906. 


the  student's  work  in  algebra  depends  as  largely  upon  his 
ability  to  make  correct,  clear  and  concise  statements  of  defini- 
tions, processes  or  rules,  and  steps  in  the  performance  of  alge- 
braic operations  in  the  solution  of  problems,  and  in  general 
demonstrations,  as  in  his  ability  to  perform  operations,  to 
solve  problems,  and  to  give  demonstrations. 
The  advanced  work  of  the  fourth  year  should  include 

(a)  A  brief  review  of  the  essentials  of  the  first  year  with 

more  attention  to  proofs  and  underlying  reasons. 

(b)  Radicals  and  quadratics  including  simultaneous  quad- 

ratic equations. 

(c)  Ratio  and  proportion  and  variation. 

(d)  Arithmetical  and  geometrical  progressions. 

(e)  Binomial  theorem  for  positive  integral  exponents. 

(f)  "Logarithms  including  use  of  tables  in  simple  numeri- 

cal work. 

(g)  Graphs  introduced  in  connection  with  above  advanced 

work. 


GEOMETRY. 

At  the  mathematical  conference  of  the  college  and  high  school 
section  of  the  State  Teachers'  Association  held  in  Milwaukee  in 
December,  1903,  a  committee  was  appointed  to  prepare  a  year 
course  in  plane  and  solid  geometry.  This  committee  consisted 
of  Messrs.  E.  B.  Skinner,  chairman,  C.  H.  Chandler,  W.  C. 
Hewitt,  and  J.  H.  Hutchison.  The  accompanying  list  of  prop- 
ositions presented  to  the  conference  by  the  committee  in  De- 
cember, 1904,  was  adopted  by  the  conference. 

In  making  its  report,  the  committee  presented  certain  recom- 
mendations designed  to  explain  and  to  supplement  the  report. 
What  follows  contains  the  gist  of  these  recommendations. 

1.  Pupils  should  be  carefully  drilled  in  the  matter  of  axioms, 

postulates,  and  definitions,  and  should  be  made  to  under- 
stand as  early  as  possible  the  part  these  play  in  the  devel- 
opment of  the  subject. 

2.  It  is  not  desirable  to  abridge   materially  the  work  in  the 

earlier  part  of  the  course  as  laid  down  in  the  best  text- 
books. It  is  necessary  to  go  carefully  over  a  fairly  large 
number  of  elementary  propositions  in  order  to  make  the 
pupil  realize  the  nature  of  demonstration. 

3.  The  committee  recommends  that,  so  far  as  possible,  a  single 

fact  should  be  stated  in  each  theorem.  The  simpler  the 
statement,  the  more  easily  its  meaning  will  be  grasped  by 
the  pupil.  When  some  progress  has  been  made  it  will  be 
a  useful  exercise  to  attempt  to  combine  the  subject  matter 
of  several  theorems  into  a  single  statement,  but  not  before. 


WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH  -SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906.  43 

4.  The  term  "corollary"    should  be  reserved  to  designate  a 

truth  that  really  does  follow  from  the  main  theorem  as  an 
obvious  consequence,  and  not  a  truth  requiring  a  more  or 
less  difficult  demonstration. 

5.  The  course  as  presented  should  be  supplemented  by  not  less 

than  one  hundred  exercises  and  problems  of  a  fair  degree 
of  difficulty.  Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  laid  upon 
this  point.  One  hundred  should  be  regarded  as  the  mini- 
mum to  be  covered  bv  the  slowest  members  of  the  class. 
Brighter  pupils  will  do  considerably  more.  It  is  in  this 
way  that  the  course  can  be  made  elastic  and  adapted  to 
the  varying  abilities  of  the  pupils. 

6.  The  solutions  of  many  of  the  theorems  should  be  merely 

suggested  to  the  pupil  and  in  other  cases  he  should  be  re- 
quired to  furnish  the  demonstration  without  any  other 
than  brief  oral  directions  given  on  the  day  preceding  that 
on  which  the  demonstration  is  to  be  presented  by  him. 
This  will  of  course  be  next  to  impossible  if  a  book  giving 
full  demonstrations  is  in  his  hands. 

7.  The  wide  awake  principal  will  see  to  it  that  so  far  as  pos- 

sible, pupils  should  have  some  notion  of  the  form  of  the 
more  common  plane  figures  and,  possibly  a  few  of  their 
•  more  elementary  properties,  before  entering  upon  the  work 
in  formal  geometry.  The  committee  does  not,  however, 
recommend  the  establishment  of  courses  in  so-called  con- 
crete or  inventional  geometry.  The  required  preliminary 
knowledge  can  easily  be  imparted  to  the  pupil  in  connec- 
tion with  the  arithmetic  of  the  grades. 

8.  The  teacher  must  never  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  knowing 

geometry  does  not  consist  in  a  more  or  less  accurate  knowl- 
edge of  any  given  set  of  theorems,  but  in  the  ability  to 
grasp  firmly  and  clearly  the  underlying  processes  and  con- 
cepts, and  to  see  quickly  the  method  of  attack  when  a  new 
problem  is  presented.  For  this  reason  teachers  are  urged 
strongly  to  use  their  own  judgment  in  the  matter  of  the 
use  of  this  report.  Other  selections  may  be  better,  and 
the  teacher  who  takes  the  time  and  trouble  to  make  out 
his  own  list  will  surely  find  that  the  results  will  be  better 
than  if  he  were  to  accept  without  question  the  report  of 
this  or  any  other  committee. 


44        WISCONSIN  FREE  HIGH  SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906. 


Report  of  the  Committee  appointed  to  select  theorems 
for  a  year  course  in  Geometry. 

(Read  before  the  Mathematics  Section  of  the  Wisconsin  State  Teachers 
Association,  December  28,  1901.*) 


PLANE  GEOMETRY. 

1.  At  a  given  point  in  a  line,  one  and  only  one  perpendicular 

to  the  line  can  be  erected. 

2.  The  sum  of  the  adjacent  angles  which  one  Ifne  makes  with 

another  equals  two  right  angles. 

Cor.  1.  The  sum  of  all  the  angles  having  a  com- 
mon vertex  and  lying  on  one  side  of  a 
straight  line  is  equal  to  two  right 
angles. 

Cor.  2.  The  sum  of  all  the  angles  formed  about  a 
point  in  a  plane  equals  four  right  an- 
gles. 

3.  Opposite  or  vertical  angles  are  equal. 

4.  Two  triangles  having  two  sides  and  the  included  angle  of 

the  one  equal  to  two  sides  and  the  included  angle  of  the 
other  are  congruent. 

5.  Two  triangles  having  one  side  and  the  two  adjacent  angles 

of  one  equal  to  a  side  and  two  adjacent  angles  of  the 

other  are  congruent. 

Cor.  Two  right  triangles  are  congruent  if  the  hy- 
potenuse and  an  acute  angle  of  one  are 
equal  to  the  hypotenuse  and  an  acute 
angle  of  the  other. 

*  To  save  space  in  printing,  the  theorems  are  in  many  cases  merely 
named,  and  in  other  cases  the  statement  is  abbreviated  as  much  as  possi- 
ble. The  careful  teacher  will  in  every  case  insist  on  a  clear,  clean  cut,  and 
rigorous  statement  of  every  theorem,  and  in  no  case  will  he  accept  the 
form  of  statement  here  given  if  that  statement  is  in  any  way  incomplete. 


WISCONSIN    FREE   HIGH  SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906.  45 


6.  The  angles  opposite  the  equal  sides  of  an  isosceles  triangle 

are  equal. 

7.  The  distances  from  any  point  in  a  perpendicular  at  the  mid- 

dle point  of  a  straight  line  to  the  extremities  of  the  line, 
are  equal,  and  the  distances  from  any  point  without 
the  perpendicular  are  unequal. 

8.  The  locus  of  a  point  equidistant  from  the  extremities  of  a 

right  line. 

9.  Two  triangles  having  the  three  sides  of  the  one  equal  re- 

spectively to  the  three  sides  of  the  other  are  congruent. 

10.  Converse  of  2. 

11.  From  a  point  without  a   straight   line  one  and    only  one 
perpendicular  can  be  let  fall  to  the  line. 

Cor.     Two  perpendiculars  to  the  same    straight  line 
are  parallel. 

12.  Two  right  triangles  are  congruent  if  the  hypotenuse  and  a 

side  of  the  one  are  equal  to  the  hypotenuse  and  a  side 
of  the  other. 

13.  If  two  triangles  have  two  sides  of   one  equal  respectively 

to  two  sides  of  the  other,  and  the  included  angles  un- 
equal, the  triangle  which  has  the  greater  included  an- 
gle has  the  greater  third  side. 

14.  If  two  triangles  have  two  sides  of  one  equal  respectively  to 

two  sides  of  the  other,  and  the  third  sides  unequal, 
the  triangle  which  has  the  greater  third  side  has  the 
greater  included  angle. 

15.  If  two  parallel  lines  are  cut  by  a  transversal  (1),  the  al- 

ternate interior  angles  are  equal;  (2),  the  correspond- 
ing angles  are  equal;  (3),  the  interior  angles  on  the 
same  side  of  the  transversal  are  supplementary. 
16-18.  Two  straight  lines  are  parallel  when  they  are  cut  by  a 
transversal  (1),  so  that  the  alternate  interior  angles 
are  equal;  (2),  so  that  the  corresponding  angles  are 
equal;  (3),  so  that  the  interior  angles  on  the  same 
side  of  the  transversal  are  supplementary. 

19.  If  the  sides  of  an  angle  are  respectively  perpendicular  to 

the  sides  of  another  angle,  the  angles  are  either  equal 
or  supplementary. 

20.  Any  exterior  angle  of  a  triangle  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the 

opposite  interior  angles. 

21.  The  sum  of  the  interior  angles  of  a  triangle  is   equal  to 

two  right  angles. 

,  Cor.  1.  In   a  right  triangle  the  acute   angles  are 

complementary. 

Cor.  2.  If  two  angles  of  one  triangle  are  equal 
respectively  to  two  angles  of  another, 
the  third  angles  are  congruent. 


46  WSCONSIN   FREE   HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,   1906. 

22.  If  two  angles  of  a  triangle  are  equal,  the  triangle  is  isos- 

celes. 

23.  If  two  angles  of  a  triangle  are  unequal,  the  sides  opposite 

are  unequal;  the  greater  side  is  opposite  the  greater 
angle. 

24.  Converse  of  23. 

25.  A  convex  broken  line  is  less  than  any  other  which  en- 

velops it  and  has  the  same  extremities. 

26.  If  a  perpendicular  and    oblique  lines  be   drawn   from  a 

point  to  a  given  line: 

I.  Two  oblique  lines  cutting  off  equal  distances 
from  the  foot  of  the  perpendicular  are 
equal. 

II.  Of  two  oblique  lines  the  one  which  cuts  off  the 
greater  distance  from  the  foot  of  the  per- 
pendicular is  greater. 

27.  The  perpendicular  is  the  shortest  line  that  can  be  drawn 

from  a  point  to  a  straight  line. 

28.  Two  equal  lines  drawn  from  a  point  in  the  perpendicu- 

lar to  a  given  line,  cut   off  equal  distances  from  the 
foot  of  the  perpendicular. 

29.  Two  unequal  lines  drawn  from  a  point  in  the  perpendicu- 

lar to  a  given  line,  cut  off  unequal  distances,  the  lon- 
ger cutting  off  the  greater  distance. 

30.  The  bisector  of  an  angle  is  the  locus  of  points  equally  dis- 

tant from  the  sides. 

31.  Two  parallelograms  are  equal  when  two  sides  and  the  in- 

cluded  angle  of  the  one  are  equal  respectively  to  two 
sides  and  the  included  angle  of  the  other. 

32.  The  opposite   sides  of  the  parallelogram  are  equal,  as  are 

also  the  opposite  angles. 

33.  A  quadrilateral  having  two  sides  equal  and  parallel  is  a 

parallelogram. 

34.  A  quadrilateral  whose  opposite  sides  are  equal  is  a  paral- 

lelogram. 

35.  The  diagonals  of  a  parallelogram  bisect  each  other. 

36.  Two  angles  having  their  sides  respectively  parallel  are 

equal  or  supplementary. 

37.  Problem:     To  determine  the  sum  of  the  interior  angles  of 

•a  convex  polygon. 

38.  Problem:     To  determine  the  sum  of  the  exterior  angles  of 

a  convex  polygon. 

39.  Circles  having  equal  radii  are  equal. 

40.  A  circle  is  bisected  by  a  diameter. 

41.  In  the  same  circle  or  in  equal  circles,  equal  angles  at  the 

center  intercept  equal  arcs  on  circumference. 

42.  Converse  of  41. 


WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH   SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906.  47 

43.  In  the  same  circle  or  in  equal  circles,  equal  cords  are  sub- 

tended by  equal  arcs. 

44.  Converse  of  43. 

45.  In  the  same  circle  or  in  equal  circles,  the  greater  of  two 

unequal  arcs  subtends  the  greater  chord. 

46.  Converse  of  45. 

47.  The  diameter  perpendicular  to  a  chord  bisects  the  chord 

and  the  two  subtended  arcs. 

Cor.  The  line  joining  the  center  of  two  intersecting 
circles  bisects  their  common  chord  at  right 
angles. 

48.  In  the  same  circle  or  in  equal  circles,  equal  chords  are 

equally  distant  from  the  center;  and  of  two   unequal 
chords,  the  shorter  is  farther  from  the  center. 

49.  Converse  of  48. 

50.  A  tangent  to  a  circle  is  perpendicular  to  the  radius  drawn 

to  the  point  of  contact. 

Cor.     At  a  given  point   on  a  circle  one  and  only  one 
tangent  can  be  drawn. 

51.  Converse  of  50. 

52.  Parallel  chords  intercept  equal  arcs  of  a  circle. 

53.  Through  three  non-collinear  points  one  and  only  one  circle 

can  be  drawn. 
Cor.     A  circle  may  be  circumscribed  about  a  triangle. 

54.  Problem:     To  find  the  greatest  common  measure  of   two 

commensurable  lines. 

55.  The  fundamental  theorem  of  limits. 

56.  In  the  same  circle  or  in  equal  circles,  angles  at  the  center 

have  the  same  ratio  as  their  intercepted  arcs. 

57.  An  inscribed  angle  is  measured  by  one-half  its  intercepted 

arc. 

Cor.  An  angle  inscribed  in  a  semicircle  is  a  right 
angle. 

58.  The  angle  formed  by  a  tangent  and  a  chord  is  measured 

by  one-half  the  intercepted  arc. 

59.  The  angle  formed  by  two  intersecting  chords  is  measured 

by  the  half  sum  of  the  intercepted  arcs. 

60.  The  angle  formed  by  two  secants  intersecting  without  the 

circumference  of  a  circle  is  measured  by  one-half  the 
difference  of  the  intercepted  arcs. 

61.  The  angle  formed  by  a  tangent  and  a  secant  is  measured 

by  one-half  the  difference  of  the  intercepted  arcs. 

62.  To  bisect  a  given  line  segment. 

63.  At  a  given  point  in  a  line  segment  to  erect  a  perpendicular. 

64.  From  a  given  point  to  let  fall  a  perpendicular  to  a  given 

line. 

65.  Through  a  given  point  to  draw  a  line  parallel  to   a  given 

line. 


48  WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH    SCHOOL,  MANUAL,   1906. 


66-69.  To  construct  a  triangle  given:  (1),  Two  sides  and  the 
included  angle;  (2),  one  side  and  two  angles;  (3),  three 
sides;  (4),  two  sides  and  the  angle  opposite  one  of 
them. 

70.  To  find  the  center  of  a  circle  passing  through  three  given 

points. 

71.  To  bisect  a  given  arc. 

72.  To  bisect  a  given  angle. 

73.  To  construct  an  angle  equal  to  a  given  angle. 

74.  To  draw  a  line  parallel  to  a  given  line. 

75.  Through  a  given  point  to  draw  a  tangent  to  a  given  circle. 

76.  To  inscribe  a  circle  in  a  given  triangle. 

77-82.  The  necessary  theorems  in  the  theory  of  proportion. 

83.  A  parallel  to  the  base  of  a  triangle  divides  the  other  two 

sides  proportionally. 

84.  Converse  of  83. 

85-87.  Two  triangles  are  similar:  (1),  When  they  are  mu- 
tually equiangular;  (2),  When,  an  angle  of  one  is  equal 
to  the  angle  of  the  other  and  the  sides  including  the 
equal  angles  are  proportional;  (3),  When  their  sides 
are  proportional. 

Cors.  to  85.  1.  Two  triangles  having  two  angles 
of  one  equal  respectively  to  twro  angles  of  the 
other  are  similar. 

2.  Two  right  triangles  having  an  acute  angle  of 
one  equal  to  an  acute  angle  of  the  other  are 
similar. 

88.  The  ratio  of  the  homologous  altitudes  of  two  similar  tri- 

angles equals  the  ratio  of  similitude  of  the  triangles. 

89.  If  two  polygons  are  composed  of  the  same  number  of  tri- 

angles similar  each  to  each  and  similiarly  placed,  the 
polygons  are  similar. 

90.  Converse  of  89. 

91.  The  ratio  of  the  perimeters  of  two  similar  polygons  is 

equal  to  their  ratio  of  similitude. 

92.  If  a  perpendicular  be  dropped  from  the  vertex  of  the  right 

angle  of  a  right  angled  triangle  to  the  hypotenuse; 
I.  The  triangles  thus  formed  are  similar  k>  each 

other  and  to  the  whole  triangle. 
II.  The  perpendicular  is  a  mean  proportional  be- 
tween the  segments  of  the  hypotenuse. 
III.  Each  side  is  a  mean  proportional  between  the 
hypotenuse   and    the    segment  adjacent  to 
that  side. 

93.  The  Pythagorean  theorem. 

94.  If  two  chords  intersect  within  a  circle  their  segments  are 

reciprocally  proportional. 


WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH    SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906.  49 


95.  If  two  secants  intersect  without  a  circle  the  whole  secants 

and  their  external  segments  are  reciprocally  propor- 
tional. 

96.  If  a  secant  and  a  tangent  meet  without  a  circle  the  tangent 

is  a  mean  proportional  between  the  external  segment 
and  the  whole  secant. 

97.  To  divide  a  straight  line  into  parts  proportional  to  given 

straight  line. 

98.  To  find  a  fourth  proportional  to  three  given  lines. 

99.  To  find  a  third  proportional  to  two  given  lines. 

100.  To  find  a  mean  proportional  to  two  given  lines. 

101.  Parallelograms  having  equal  bases  and  equal  altitudes  are 

equivalent. 

102.  Two  rectangles  having  equal  bases  are  to  each  other  as 

their  altitudes. 

103.  Two  rectangles  are  to  each  other  as  the  products  of  their 

bases  by  their  altitudes. 

104-107.  The  theorems  which  give  the  areas  of  (1),  the  rect- 
angle; (2),  the  parallelogram;  (3),  the  triangle;  (4),  the 
trapazoid. 

Cors.  to  106.     1.  Triangles  having  equal  altitudes 

and  equal  bases  are  equivalent. 
2.  Triangles  having  equal  altitudes  are  to  each 
other  as  their  bases;  triangles  having  equal 
bases  are  to  each  other  as  their  altitudes. 

108.  Similar  triangles  are  to  each  other  as  the  squares  of  their 

homologous  sides. 

109.  Similar  polygons  are  to  each  other  as  the  squares  of  the 

homologous  sides. 

110.  To  construct  a  triangle  equivalent  to  a  given  polygon. 

111.  To  construct  a  square  equivalent  to  a  given  parallelogram. 

112.  To  construct  a  square  whose  area  is  equal  to  the  sum  of 

two  or  more  given  squares. 

113.  To  construct  a  square  whose  area  is  equal  to  the  difference 

of  two  given  squares. 

114.  To  find  two  straight  lines   having  the  same  ratio  as  two 

given  polygons. 

115.  If  a/ circumference  be  divided  into  equal  parts,  the  chords 

joining  successive  points  of  division  form  a  regular  in- 
scribed polygon,  and  the  tangents  drawn  at  these 
points  form  a  regular  circumscribed  polygon. 

116.  The  tangents  drawn  at  the  middle  points  of  the  arcs  sub- 

tended by  the  sides  of  a  regular  inscribed  polygon, 
form  a  reguiar  circumscribed  polygon  whose  sides  are 
parallel  to  the  sides  of  the  inscribed  polygon,  and  whose 
vertices  lie  on  the  radii  drawn  to  the  vertices  of  the  in- 
scribed polygon. 
4 


50  WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH  /SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906. 

117.  A  circle  may  be  circumscribed  about  a  regular  polygon 

and  a  circle  may  be  inscribed  in  a  regular  polygon. 

118.  Regular   polygons   of    the    same  number    of    sides    are 

similar. 

Cor.  The  perimeters  of  two  similar  polygons  have  the 
same  ratio  as  their  radii  or  their  apothems,  and 
the  areas  the  same  ratio  as  the  squares  of  their 
radii  or  their  apothems. 

119-121.  When  the  number  of  sides  of  an  inscribed  polygon 
is  increased  indefinitely:  (1),  The  apothem  is  a  variable 
having  the  radius  as  its  limit;  (2),  the  perimeter  is  a 
variable  with  the  circumference  as  its  limit;  (3),  the 
area  is  a  variable  with  the  area  of  a  circle  as  its  limit. 
122.  Two  circumferences  have  the  same  ratio  as  their  radii,  or 

as  their  diameters. 
Cor.     The  ratio  of  the  circumference  to  its  diameter  is 

constant  and  C=7rD. 

128.  The  areas  of  two  circles  have  the  same  ratio  as  the  squares 
of  their  radii  or  of  their  diameters. 

124.  The  area  of  a  circle  is   equal  to  one-half  the   product  of 

the  circumference  by  the  radius. 
Cor.     The  area  of  a  circle  equals  TrR2. 

125.  To  inscribe  a  square  in  a  circle. 

126.  To  inscribe  a  regular  hexagon  in  a  circle. 

127.  Given  the  sides  of  a  regular  inscribed  and  a  similar  cir- 

cumscribed polygon,  to  compute  the  perimeters  of  the 
inscribed  and  circumscribed  polygons  of  double  the 
number  of  sides. 

128.  To  compute  an  approximate  value  for  w. 


SOLID  GEOMETRY. 

1.  A  plane  is  determined,  (1),  by  a  straight  line  -and  a  point 

without  the  line;  (2),  by  two  intersecting  right  lines; 
(3),  by  three  non-collinear  points;  (4),  by  two  parallel 
right  lines. 

2.  The  intersection  of  two  planes  is  a  straight  line. 

3.  From  a  point  without  a  plane  one  and  only  one  perpendic- 

ular to  the  plane  may  be  drawn;  this  perpendicular  is 
the  shortest  line  that  can  be  drawn  from  the  pointto  the 
plane. 

4.  Through  a  given  point  one  and  only  one  perpendicular  can 

be  erected  to  a  plane. 


WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH   SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906.  51 


5.  Equal  oblique  lines  drawn  from  a  point  in  a  perpendicular 
cut  off  equal  distances  from  the  foot  of  the  perpendicu- 
lar; and  of  two  unequal  lines  drawn  from  the  point  in 
the  perpendicular,  the  greater  cuts  off  the  greater  dis-~ 
tance  from  the  foot  of  the  perpendicular. 

'  6.  A  straight  line  perpendicular  to  two  intersecting  lines  is 
perpendicular  to  their  plane. 

7.  All  the  perpendiculars  to  a  straight  line  at  a  point  lie  in  a 

plane?  which  is  perpendicular  to  the  line. 

8.  If  from  the  foot  of  a  perpendicular  to  a  plane  a  straight  line 

be  drawn  at  right  angles  to  any  line  of  the  plane,  and 
the  intersection  with  that  line  be  joined  to  any  point  in 
the  perpendicular,  the  line  so  drawn  is  perpendicular  to 
the  line  of  the  plane. 

9.  If  one  of  two  parallel  lines  is  perpendicular  to  a  plane  the 

other  is  also. 

10.  Two  lines  perpendicular  to  the  same  plane  are  parallel. 

Cor.  Two   straight  lines   both  parallel   to  a  third,  are 
parallel  to  each  other. 

11.  Planes  perpendicular  to  the  same  straight  lines  are  parallel. 

Cor.  Through  a  point,  one  and  only  one  plane  can  be 
drawn  parallel  to  a  given  plane. 

12.  The  intersections  of  two  parallel  planes  with   a  third  are 

parallel, 

13.  Two  angles  having  their*  sides  parallel  are  either  equal  or 

supplementary,  and  their  planes  are  parallel. 

Cor.  All  plane  angles  of  a  dihedral  angle  are  equal. 

14.  A  dihedral  angle  is  measured  by  its  plane  angle. 

15.  Every  plane  containing  a  line  perpendicular  to  a  plane  is 

perpendicular  to  this  plane. 

16.  If  two  planes  are  perpendicular,  a  line  drawn  in  one  per- 

pendicular to  their  intersection  is  perpendicular  to  the 
other. 

17.  The  intersection   of  two  planes  perpendicular  to  a  third 

plane  is  perpendicular  to  the  third  plane. 

18.  Through  a  given  straight  line,   one   and    only  one  plane 

perpendicular  to  a  given  plane  can  be  drawn. 

19.  The  projection  of  a  straight  line  upon  a  plane  is  a  straight 

line. 

20.  The  angle  which  a  line  makes  with  its  projection  upon  a 

plane  is  the  least  angle  made  by  the  line  and  any  line  of 
the  plane. 

21.  A  point  in  the  bisector  of  a  dihedral  angle  is  equidistant 

from  the  faces  of  the  dihedral  angle. 

Definitions  of  polyhedral  angle,  sphere,  tangent  line  and  tan- 
gent plane,  great  circle,  spherical  angle,  and  spherical 
triangle. 


52  WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH  ,SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906. 


22.  The  section  of  a  sphere  by  a  plane  is  a  circle. 

Cor.  1.  The  center  of  a  great  circle  coincides  with   the 

center  of  the  sphere. 

Cor.  2.  The  plane  of  a  great  circle  bisects  the  sphere. 
Cor.  3.  Two  great  circles  bisect  each  other. 
Cor.  4.  Through  three  points  on  a  sphere  but  one  circle 

may  be  drawn. 

23.  A  plane  perpendicular  to  a  radius  at  its  extremity  is  tan- 

gent to  the  sphere. 

Cor.     All  lines  tangent  to  a  sphere  at  a  point  lie  in  the 
plane  tangent  to  the  sphere  at  the  point. 

24.  The  angle  between  two  arcs  of  great  circles  is  equal  to  the 

angle  of  their  planes  and  is  measured  by  the  arc  of  a 
great  circle  described  from  its  vertex  as  pole  and  in- 
cluded between  its  sides. 

25.  The  sum  of  two  face  angles  of  a  trihedral  angle  is  greater 

than  the  third. 

Cor.     The   sum   of  two   sides  of  a  spherical  triangle  is 
greater  than  the  third. 

26.  Parallel  plane  sections  of  a  prism  are  congruent. 

27.  The  lateral  area  of  a  prism. 

28.  The  criterion  for  the  equality  of  two  prisms. 

29.  An  oblique  prism  is  equal  to  a' right  prism  having  for  its 

base  and  altitude  a  right  section  and  an  edge  of  the; 
oblique  prism. 

30.  Opposite  faces  of  a  parallelogram  are  congruent. 

31.  A  plane  embracing  two  opposite  edges  of  a  parallelepiped 

divides  it  into  two  equivalent  triangular  prisms. 

32.  A  parallelepiped  is  equal  in  volume  to  a  rectangular  paral- 

lelopiped  having  an  equal  altitude  and  an  equivalent  base. 

33.  Two  rectangular  parallelepipeds  having  equal  bases  are  to  j 

each  other  as  their  altitudes. 

34.  Two  rectangular  parallelepipeds  having  equal  altitudes  are ! 

to  each  other  as  the  areas  of  their  bases. 

35.  Any  two  rectangular  parallelepipeds  are  to  each  other  as 

the  products  of  their  three  dimensions. 

36.  The  volume  of  any  rectangular  parallelepiped. 

Cor.  The  volume  of  any  parallelepiped. 

37.  The  volume  of  a  triangular  prism. 

Cor.  The  volume  of  any  prism. 

38.  If  a  pyramid  be  cut  by  a  plane  parallel  to  its  base: 

I.  The  edges  and  the  altitude  are  divided  propor- 
tionally. 

II.  The  section  is  a  polygon  similar  to  the  base. 
III.  The  area  of  the  section  is  to  the  area  of  the  base 
as  the  square  of  the  distance  from  the  ver- 
tex is  to  the  altitude. 


WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,   1906.  53 

39.  The  lateral  area  of  a  regular  pyramid 

Cor.  The  lateral  area  of  a  frustum  of  a  regular  pyr- 

40.  Triangular  pyramids  having  equal  altitudes  and  equivalent 

41    A  triangular  pyramid  'is  one-third  of  a  triangular  prism 
having  the  same  base  and  altitude. 

Cor.  1.  The  volume  of  a  triangular  pyramid. 

Cor.  2.  The  volume  of  any  pyramid. 

Cor  3    The  ratio  of  pyramids  with  equal  altitudes. 

42.  Plane  sections  of  a  cylinder  embracing  an  element  are  par 

allelograms. 

43.  The  bases  of  a  cylinder  are  congruent 

Cor.  Parallel  sections  of  a  cylinder  are  congruent. 

44.  The  lateral  area  of  a  cylinder. 

46.  The  raUoTf  the  surfaced  and  of  the  volumes  of  two  similar 

right  cylinders. 

47.  Plane  section  of  a  cone,  containing  one  element,  an 

48.  AnTsection  of  a  circular  cone  parallel  to  the  base,  is  a  cir- 

cle whose  center  lies  upon  the  straight  line  joining  the 
vertex  to  the  center  of  the  base. 

49.  The  lateral  area  of  a  cone  of  revolution. 

51.'  The  Irea^the^nvex  surface  of 'the  frustum  of  a  cone  of 

52.  Th^ratio  of  the  surfaces  and  of  the  volumes  of  two  similar 

53.  Al^p^intT^'the  circumference  of  a  circle  or  sphere  are 

equally  distant  from  its  poles.  . 

Cor.  The  polar  distance  of  a  great  circle  is  a  quad 
rant.  . 

54  If  the  first  of  two  spherical  triangles  is  the  polar  of  the  sec 

ond,  the  second  is  the  polar  of  the  first. 

55  In  two  polar  triangles  each  angle  of  one  is  measured  by  t 

supplement  of  the  side  lying  opposite  it  in  the  other. 

56  The  sum  of  the  angles  of  a  spherical  triangle  is  greater 

than  two  and  less  than  six  right  angles, 

57.  The  area  of  the  surface  generated  by  a  straight  line 

ing  about  an  axis  in  its  plane. 

58.  The  area  of  a  zone  of  a  sphere. 

59.  The  area  of  the  surface  of  a  sphere. 

Cor.  The  ratio  of  the  surfaces  of  two  spheres. 

60.  The  volume  of  a  sphere. 

Cor.  The  ratio  of  the  volumes  of  two  spheres. 


54  WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906. 


BOOKKEEPING. 

In  all  or  nearly  all  of  the  courses  lately  adopted,  the  time 
devoted  to  bookeeping  has  been  increased  from  a  term  to  a 
semester.  Where  arithmetic  is  followed  with  bookkeeping  and 
the  two  together  occupy  a  full  year  of  work,  no  objection  will 
be  raised  to  alternating  the  subjects,  thus  concentrating  atten- 
tion upon  bookkeeping,  and  such  reviews  of  arithmetic  as  are 
necessary  for  a  full  year.  Bookkeeping  originally  found  a 
place  on  the  course  of  study  because  of  a  demand  for  some 
practical  instruction  in  the  common  affairs  of  business  life. 

The  high  schools  of  the  state  should  keep  faith  with  the  peo- 
ple by  devoting  the  best  talent  and  teaching  energy  of  the 
school  to  instruction  in  this  subject  when  it  is  offered. 

The  value  of  bookkeeping  as  a  high  school  study  depends 
more  largely  than,  perhaps,  any  other  in  the  course  upon  the 
system  used  and  the  manner  of  treatment.  Its  low  repute  in 
the  minds  of  many  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they  are  thinking  of 
the  formal  text-book  work  of  earlier  days,  with  its  uniform 
memoranda  and  utter  lack  of  anything  in  the  nature  of  actual 
business  transactions.  Beyond  a  more  or  less  vague  idea  of 
debit  and  credit,  and  some  training  inhabits  of  arrangement, 
care,  and  neatness,  it  yielded  little  benefit,  and  was  hardly 
worthy  of  more  than  a  very  few  weeks'  study. 

With  any  one  of  several  of  the  modern  systems,  however, 
the  case  is  quite  different.  Jf  treated  properly,  no  other  sub- 
ject in  the  whole  curriculum  possesses  a  greater  interest  to  the 
pupil,  affords  a  wider  range  of  training  for  practical  applica- 
tion after  leaving  school,  gives  greater  opportunity  for  the  for- 
mation of  habits  of  care,  neatness,  accuracy  and  the  like,  or 
aids  the  pupil  more  in  determining  his  fitness  for  certain  voca- 
tions in  life.  It  is  not  mere  surface  work.  It  requires  close, 
intensive  business  thinking  which  is  of  the  highest  training 
value. 

Again,  bookkeeping  has  an  advantage  over  almost  every 
other  study  in  that  it  appeals  so  strongly  to  the  business  pa- 
trons of  the  schools.  It  popularizes  the  high  school  and  over- 
comes the  prejudices  of  so  many  in  regard  to  some  of  the 
other  branches. 

The  value  of  any  special  system  may  be  said  to  be  in  direct 
ratio  to  the  actual  business  conditions  for  which  it  provides, 
provided,  of  course,  that  these  are  within  the  comprehension 
of  the  pupil.  It  should  call  for  transactions  so  varied  that, 
while  there  may  be  a  general  similarity,  no  two  books  shall  be 
alike.  When  such  work  is  given,  the  pupil  realizes  as  never 
before  that  his  success  depends  upon  his  own  individual 


WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,   1906.  55 

effort.  His  cash  must  equal  the  amount  called  for  by  his 
books,  his  trial  balance  must  be  correct,  and  he  must  be  able 
to  stand  the  test  in  regard  to  all  phases  of  his  business.  If  his 
books  are  not  fairly  well  kept,  not  even  the  expert  teacher  can 
help  him  out  of  his  difficulties,  and  he  learns  what  it  means 
to  depend  upon  himself.  The  various  forms  of  business  paper, 
checks,  drafts,  leases,  and  some  of  the  methods  of  business 
transactions  assume  a  definite  meaning  which  can  only  be 
given  by  daily  use  and  experience.  Topics  of  arithmetic,  such 
as  markings  of  goods,  interest,  discount  and  commission  be- 
comes real  and  tangible,  and  their  connection  with  the  world 
outside  the  covers  of  the  book  is  comprehended.  The  impor- 
tance of  ability  to  do  the  fundamental  operations  is  understood 
after  hours  have  been  spent  in  detecting  some  error  in  compu- 
tation. A  standing  of  90  per  cent,  is  not  sufficient;  the  work 
must  be  correct  or  it  is  a  failure. 

The  above  will  indicate  the  purposes  to  be  kept  in  view  in 
the  study  of  bookkeeping  in  the  high  school.  It  is  within  the 
ability  of  the  average  second  year  student,  and,  if  given  at 
that  time,  will  have  its  effect  on  the  succeeding  work.  It  re- 
quires a  longer  time,  however,  than  the  one  term  often  given 
to  it.  A  year  for  bookkeeping  and  the  allied  arithmetic  is  not 
too  long.  Not  only  are  the  transactions  confusing  at  first  and 
the  intricacies  of  the  double  entry  difficult,  but  time  is  needed 
for  a  gradual  growth  of  the  power  to  see  relationships  of  the 
different  entries  and  processes.  But  little,  if  anything,  will  be 
gained  by  using  single  entry  as  an  introduction.  The  change 
makes  the  double  entry  more  difficult  than  to  introduce  all 
parties  to  the  transactions  at  once. 

There  should  be  a  few  weeks  of  introductory  work  with  uni- 
form memoranda  in  the  old  fashioned  way.  This  will  give 
opportunity  to  gain  familiarity  with  forms  of  entry,  and  a 
knowledge  of  the  necessary  general  principles  of  the  subject 
before  taking  up  the  confusing  details  of  the  actual  business. 


56  WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH  (SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906. 


HISTORY. 


THE    PURPOSE    OF   HISTORICAL    INSTRUCTION    IN 

SCHOOL. 

The  utility  of  history  as  a  high  school  study  is  due  chiefly 
to  the  training  which  it  affords  for  citizenship.  "To  prepare 
the  child  for  judgments  in  actual  life  the  materials  must  re- 
semble as  nearly  as  possible  the  conditions  of  actual  life.  Such 
materials  are  found  in  history  and  found  there  in  greater  de- 
gree than  in  any  other  subject."  Aside  from  the  body  of  in- 
formation acquired,  the  weighing  of  evidence,  the  comparative 
study  of  political  systems  of  other  countries,  and  the  formation 
of  judgments  upon  men  and  measures,  constitute  a  most  useful 
training  for  the  future  citizens.  Dr.  Arnold  described  the 
utility  of  instruction  in  history,  civics,  and  economics  when  he 
said:  "It  is  clear  that  in  whatever  it  is  our  duty  to  act,  those 
matters  also  it  is  our  duty  to  study."  In  addition  to  the  train- 
ing which  it  affords  to  the  judgment,  history,  constantly  taught, 
also  trains  the  perception,  imagination  and  memory.  The  im- 
portance given  to  training  the  judgment  should  increase  in  the 
higher  grades  and  the  judgment  can  be  best  exercised  when  the 
pupil's  perception,  imagination,  and  memory  supply  the  neces- 
sary data.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  by  the  imagina- 
tion, in  this  case,  is  meant  the  power  to  place  one's  self  in  the 
position  of  the  people  of  other  times  and  of  other  countries. 
For  fuller  discussion  of  the  purpose  of  historical  instruction 
see  Bourne:  Study  of  History  and  Civics;  Report  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  Seven;  Hinsdale:  How  to  Teach  and  Study  History, 
ch.  I-IV;  Lecky:  Political  Value  of  History. 

It  should  not  be  the  ideal  of  history  teaching  to  furnish  a  bare 
outline  of  names  and  dates,  a  well  proportioned  set  of  pigeon- 
holes to  be  filled  up  in  after  life.  Such  a  process,  however  at- 
tractive in  theory,  is  not  workable  in  fact;  the  names  and  dates 
come  to  have  less  than  the  value  of  algebraic  symbols  of  un- 
known quantities.  But  it  by  no  means  follows  that  history 


WUSCONSIN   FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906.  57 

can  be  taught  without  accurate  knowledge  and  caref ul  memori- 
zation of  the  most  significant  historical  landmarks 
means  to  an  end,  and  should  be  so  illuminated  with  concrete 
o        as  to  be  held  as  vital  elements  rather  than  as  a  bare  and 
dead  weight  on  the  memory.     Institutions  and  men  should  be 
made  red  for  the  student  by  sufficient  concrete  and  intelligible 
discussion  of  their  essential  characteristics.     As  a  part  of  the 
trainmT  n  judgment,  and  in  the  interest  of  mental  economy, 
hev  shoukl  be  taugh    to  observe  lines  of  causation,  to  distm- 
%%M  the  I nduring  and  the  fleeting  between  the  essen- 
ti  i  s  and  the  non-essentials  in  history,  and  the  important  should 
be  made  clear,  at  whatever  cost  of  time.     To  the  objection  that 
this  moL  of  bating  Instorical  study  ^ 
takes  more  time,  the  answer  of  the  late  Mary  Sheldon  Barne 

condusive:  "Good  friend,  it  does;  and  it  takes  more  time 
to  solve  a  problem  in  arithmetic  than  to  read  its  answer;  and 
more  tim?  to  read  a  play  of  Shakespeare  than  to  read  that 
Shakespeare  was  the  greatest  dramatist  of  ^^«»JH<2g 
more  time  finally  to  read  the  American  constitution  and  OM 
SSSSf^i.  and  make  up  your  mind  how  to  vote  your 
own  vote,  than  it  does  to  be  put  into  a  block  of  five.  But  wfia 
is  time  for?" 

METHOD. 

The  following  outline  is  probably  inclusive  of  the  various 
possible  activities  connected  with  the  daily  business  of  teaching 
nistorj  A  careful  study  of  this  outline,  read  m  connec  ion 
with  the  immediate  business  in  hand,  should  prove  helpful. 

OUTLINE   of    the    TEACHER'S    DAILY    BUSINESS    in    HISTORY 

TEACHING. 

/.   The  Alignment. 
a.  Text  book. 

Questions  of  fact.  .    . 

Questions  of  reasons,  relation  and  opinion. 

'     L  To  organize  old  material  for  thinking,  relating. 

2.  To  store  facts  to  be  memorized, 
c    Cherts-for  visualizing,  localizing,  in  time  and 

Purpose,  to  aid  memory,  and  to  assist   pupils  to    grasp  and 
hold   complex  events. 

d.  The  map,  as  in  c. 

e.  Outside  leading. 

1.  Original  sources. 

2.  General  reference  work. 

3.  Biography. 

4.  Historical  fiction.  . 

f.  Special  topics  for  selected  individuals,  or  sections  oi 


58  WISCONSIN  FREE  HIGH  SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906. 


//.  The  Recitation. 

a.  Review. 

Topical  method. 
Question  method. 

b.  Testing  on  assigned  work  for  the  day.    . 

c.  Free  discussion  by  pupils. 

d.  Supplementary  discussion  and  assignment  by  the  teacher. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  fundamental  criticisms  made 
on  history  teaching  in  general  by  inspectors  of  schools,  and 
others  who  have  observed  the  work  in  Wisconsin: 

I.  The  core  of  essentlial  fact  material  which  is  found  in  a  good  text 

book  is  not  thoroughly  mastered,  for  some  or  all  of  the  following 
reasons: 

(a)  Because   the  assignment  is  not  sufficiently  specific  to  guide 

pupils  to  advanced  work. 

(b)  Because  the  teacher  does  not  keep  clearly  in  mind  that  one  of 

the  uses  of  the  chart  and  the  maps  is  to  definitely  fix  his- 
torical fact. 

(c)  Because  pupils  are  not  made  to  see  the  importance  of  the  his- 

torical facts  selected  to  be  studied. 

(d)  Because  the  teacher  has  not  definitely  determined  upon  the 

relative  value  of  the  various  historical  facts  which  may  be 
selected  for  study. 

(e)  Because  the  discussion  of  reasons  and  relations  is  thrust  for- 

ward, before  the  facts,  on  which  the  discussion  depends, 
are  fixed  by  all  members  of  the  class. 

(f)  Because  the  topical  method  is  employed  too  frequently  and  too 

early  in  the  work. 

(g)  Because  the  assignment  does  not  contain  questions  of  reason, 

relation  and  opinion,  to  stimulate  and  direct  thought  and 
inquiry  during  the  study  period. 

(h)  Because  the  teacher  neglects  to  test  the  student's  memory  of 
facts  assigned,  and  invites  free  discussion,   or  volunteers  a 
discussion  herself  before  the  facts,  upon  which  the  discus 
sion  must  depend,  are  known  by  all. 

(i)  Bf cause  assignment  of  outside  reading  is  made  without  suffi- 
cient reference  to  the  core  of  essential  fact  found  in  the 
text  book. 

(j)  Because  assignment  of  special  topics  to  selected  individuals  is 
made  without  reference  to  the  core  of  essential  fact,  and 
because  recitation  upon  special  topics  easily  creates  the  il- 
lusion that  the  class  understand  the  subject  covered,  when, 
in  reality,  it  is  blurred  for  all  by  a  system  of  division  of 
labor. 

II.  Pupils  do  not  learn  to  read  history  thoughtfully  ;  neither  do  they 

learn  to  plan  and  direct  their  own  study,  that  is  to  say,  to  groiv 
steadily  more  and  more  self-reliant  in  the  use  of  books,  for 
some  or  all  of  the  following  reasons: 

(a)  Because  lessons  are  not  assigned  in  a  detailed  and  logical  man- 

ner, and  in  such  form  that  all  will  be  able  to  recollect  the 
assignment. 

(b)  Because  they  are  not  slowly  but  surely  made  conscious  of  the 

teacher's  method  of  directing  their  work;  that  is  to  say, 
they  are  not  led  as  they  should  be,  to  gradually  assume  re- 
sponsibility for  making  the  assignment  themselves.  If  they 


WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,   1906.  59 


become  conscious  of  the  value  of  the  teacher's  question,  of 
the  help  it  renders  them  in  study,  then  they  will  gradually 
acquire  the  power  to  ask  questions  of  themselves  when  they 
study.  They  should  be  tested  steadily  for  this  power. 

(c)  Because  for  some  of  the  reasons  enumerated  in  number  one 

they  have  never  absolutely  mastered  the  core  of  essential 
fact  and  because  they  have  not  learned  that  thinking  rests 
back  upon  fact. 

(d)  Because  they  are  permitted  in  the  recitation  to  make  random 

discussion  of  things,  the  elements  of  which  are  not  known; 
because  they  are  called  upon  in  recitation  to  render  judg- 
ment on  things  not  previously  analyzed  or  thought  out  dur- 
ing the  study  period;  that  is  to  say,  because  the  assignment 
did  not  direct  them  to  do  thinking  while  they  studied,  they 
grew  accustomed  to  rendering  snap  judgments  in  the  reci- 
tation, or  to  accepting  the  snap  judgments  of  their  fellows. 

(e)  Because  the  teacher,  before  entering  upon  a  discussion  her- 

self, does  not  review  and  test  thoroughly  the  knowledge  of 
the  pupils.  Occasionally  the  work  of  a  history  class  is 
completely  blurred  because  the  teacher  tells  too  much. 


THE  CURRICULUM. 

The  work  in  the  high  school  should  consist  of  the  history  of 
the  United  States  (to  be  given  in  the  last  year,  if  possible)  and 
one  or  more  of  the  following  blocks: 

1.  Ancient  History  (Oriental  Greek,  Roman  and  Early  Medie- 

val) to  800  A.  D.     One  year. 

2.  Medieval  and  Modern  History,   800-1900  A.  D.     One  year. 

3.  Medieval,  one-half  year,  and  English  History,  one-half  year. 

4.  English  History.     One  year. 

The  topics  to  be  treated  in  each  "block"  are  discussed  at 
length  in  Bourne's  •  book  and  in  volume  by  -the  Commit- 
tee of  the  New  England  Association.  In  Bourne,  too  many 
topics  are  suggested  if  less  than  five  periods  a  week  are 
given  to  history.  The  teacher  should  remember  that  it  is  wiser 
to  teach  a  few  subjects  in  such  a  manner  as  to  train  the  judg- 
ment, rather  than  to  attempt  to  cover  the  field.  The  latter  is 
an  impossible  task,  and  the  value  of  the  study  will  be  best  se- 
cured by  selecting  only  the  most  important  topics  for  careful 
study.  In  ancient  history?  for  example,  much  attention  should 
be  given  to  the  biographical  side  and  to  the  civilization  of  the 
different  ages,  rather  than  to  the  dynasties  of  Egypt  or  the  laws 
of  early  times.  In  medieval  history  the  elements  in  the  civil- 
ization which  have  influenced  modern  life  and  thought  should 
be  emphasized.  In  modern  history  the  pupils  should  learn  the 
more  important  features  of  the  governmental  systems  in  the 
chief  European  countries.  They  should  be  taught  to  contrast 
the  federal  systems  in  Germany  and  in  the  United  States 


60  WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906. 

the  party  systems  in  France,  England  and  this  country.  In 
English  history  the  pupils  should  study  the  elements  which 
have  been  important  for  the  history  of  our  own  country. 

REFERENCE  BOOKS  FOR  TEACHERS. 

Bourne:     Teaching  of  History  and  Civics. — Longmans. 

Practical  Recommendations,  with  excellent  bibliographies. 

The  Study  of  History  in  Schools.  Report  to  the  American 
Historical  Association  by  the  Committee  of  Seven.  Macmillan. 
A  very  valuable  discussion;  should  be  studied  by  all  history 
teachers. 

Channing  and  Hart:  Guide  to  the  Study  of  American  His- 
tory. Ginn.  Essential  to  every  teacher  of  the  history  of  the 
United  States. 

A  report  of  the  Committee  of  Six,  on  Practical  Methods  and 
Courses,  to  the  New  England  Teachers'  Association,  submitting 
a  plan  of  a  syllabus  for  a  four  years'  course  in  history.  D.  C. 
Heath  &  Co. 

See  High  School  Library  lists  for  reference  works  for  pupils. 

CONSTITUTIONAL  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED 
STATES. 

In  the  high  school,  the  history  of  the  United  States  should 
be  taught  with  stress  upon  the  political,  constitutional  and 
economic  aspects,  as  a  preparation  for  the  exercise  of  citizen- 
ship. The  emphasis  should  be  laid  upon  the  period  following 
the  Revolution.  The  survey  of  the  confederation  and  the  for- 
mation of  the  new  constitution  should  make  clear  the  difficul- 
ties which  led  to  th&  compromises  of  the  constitution,  and  the 
colonial  and  early  state  institutions  should  be  sufficiently  de- 
scribed to  show  how  the  new  constitution  derived  its  material 
from  these  earlier  political  institutions.  In  connection  with 
the  formation  of  the  constitution  the  main  features  of  the  in- 
strument should  be  studied,  thus  enabling  the  student  to  see 
the  result  of  the  work  of  the  constitutional  convention.  The 
struggle  between  the  systems  of  Jefferson  and  Hamilton  in 
Washington's  administration  will  serve  to  reveal  the  organiza- 
tion of  national  political  parties,  and  the  beginning  of  the  long 
struggle  between  the  strict  and  loose  construction  of  the  con- 
stitution. In  connection  with  Hamilton's  plans  for  the  bank, 
funding,  the  tariff,  the  currency,  etc.,  the  fundamental  ideas  of 
political  economy  in  respect  to  currency,  finance  and  banking 
should  be  elucidated.  Throughout  the  course  this  inter-rela- 
tion of  civics,  economics,  and  American  history  should  be 
preserved. 


WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH    SCHOOL  MANUAL,   1906.  61 

In  cases  where  civics  is  taught  as  a  separate  study  constant 
reference  should  be  made  to  concrete  historical  examples  in  the 
civics  class,  and  equally  constant  attention  should  be  called  to 
the  economic  and  constitutional  bearings  of  an  event,  in  the 
class  in  history. 

CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

Provision  is  made  by  statute  for  the  teaching  of  the  Consti- 
tution of  the  United  States  and  of  Wisconsin  in  the  public 
schools. 

A  knowledge  of  the  fundamental  laws  of  the  land  is  indis- 
pensable to  every  citizen,  and  with  this  end  in  view  the  consti- 
tution should  be  taught,  the  more  important  clauses  being 
memorized.  The  error,  however,  should  not  be  made  of  treat- 
ing the  subject  in  a  meaningless,  routine  manner,  for  every 
section  and  every  clause  possesses  a  life  which  more  or  less 
affects  our  every-day  existence.  Let  the  teacher  make  the 
branch  a  practical  one,  losing  no  opportunity  of  bringing  out 
its  full  meaning  by  the  application  of  current  history  or  local 
events.  In  this  way  an  interest  wTill  be  excited,  and  more  than 
all,  the  great  object  in  teaching  of  civil  government  will  be 
more  nearly  attained,  viz.,  to  create  law-abiding  citizens.  The 
young  people  must  early  learn  the  duties  of  the  citizen  and  the 
individual  responsibility  of  that  citizen  toward  maintaining  a 
stable  government  for  the  nation. 


CONSTITUTION  OF  WISCONSIN. 

The  Constitution  of  Wisconsin  should  be  treated  in  its  anal- 
ogies to  the  national  constitution,  at  the  time  of  consideration 
of  the  leading  topics  of  that  branch.  It  will  therefore  not  be 
necessary  to  spend  much  time  in  a  special  study  of  the  Wiscon- 
sin constitution.  In  general,  the  two  are  much  alike.  The 
principal  study  should  be  put  upon  the  important  parts  of  the 
state  constitution  not  already  considered  in  connection  with 
the  constitution  of  the  United  States.  Omit  unimportant  facts. 
It  will  be  well  to  deal  with  the  different  forms  of  governments, 
as  administered  in  the  county,  town,  village,  city  and  school 
districts.  These  governments  come  within  the  immediate 
knowledge  of  the  children  or  their  parents,  and  a  study  of  de- 
tails will  be  found  profitable.  It  will  be  well  also  to  take  up  the 
subject  of  elections.  The  present  system  of  voting,  known  as 
the  "Australian"  method,  may  be  illustrated  by  securing 
samples  of  the  ballot.  The  method  of  nominations  through 
primary  elections  is  important. 


62  WISCONSIN  FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906. 


If  there  is  a  literary  society  in  connection  with  the  school, 
much  assistance  can  be  given  to  the  subject  of  civil  govern- 
ment by  providing  for  debates  upon  important  national  ques- 
tions, for  moot  courts,  and  mock  legislative  deliberations. 
Every  opportunity  to  visit  the  state  legislature,  the  county 
board  of  supervisors,  the  town  meeting,  and  other  assemblages 
of  govermental  character,  should  be  improved.  Throughout 
the  entire  work  on  this  subject  an  attempt  should  be  made  to 
have  pupils  realize  the  essentials  of  good  citizenship.  A  know- 
ledge of  constitutions  and  of  the  details  of  governmental  acti- 
vities may  make  more  intelligent  citizens,  but  it  does  not  nec- 
essarily make  better  ones. 


ECONOMICS. 

A  high  school  course  in  economics  should  be  made  the  essen- 
tial part  of  the  training  for  citizenship  by  giving  pupils  a 
definite  understanding  of  the  leading  facts  and  principles  which 
underlie  the  present  social  order,  by  inculcating  hajbits  of  in- 
dependent investigation  and  clear  reasoning  with  respect  to  the 
facts  entering  into  such  investigations,  by  cultivating  that  atti- 
tude of  mind  which  will  always  be  tolerant  without  sacrificing 
personal  convictions,  and,  in  general,  by  introducing  pupils  to 
the  great  problems  which  affect  the  industrial  world,  without 
prejudice  and  without  dogmatism. 

In  schools  where  only  a  half  year  is  devoted  to  this  study 
one  of  two  lines  of  work  may  be  pursued;  where  economics  runs 
through  a  whole  year,  both  lines  of  work  may  be  attempted. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  both  can  be  made  a  success  if  together 
they  occupy  only  half  of  one  year. 

One  line  of  work  embraces  a  study  of  industrial  history. 
Beginning  with  the  family  methods  of  production,  the  growth 
of  the  present  industrial  order  may  be  traced  through  the  guild, 
domestic  and  factory  system,  to  the  present  system  of  combina- 
tion. Material  for  the  first  three  stages  of  industrial  evolution 
must  be  drawn  chiefly  from  European  sources,  while  for  the  last 
two, — the  factory  and  combination  or  consolidation  systems, — 
American  history  abounds  in  illustrations.  The  causes  which 
produced  successive  stages  of  industry  should  be  analyzed  and 
the  relation  of  each  system  to  its  contemporary  social  order 
pointed  out.  Pupils  will  thus  gradually  learn  to  realize  that 
our  industrial,  social,  political  and  other  institutions  differ  with 
time,  circumstance  and  place. 

The  other  line  of  work  involves  a  study  of  the  production, 
exchange,  distribution  and  consumption  of  wealth.  Pupils 
should  gain  definite  conceptions  of  terms  like  production,  capi- 


WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906.  63 


tal,  labor,  value,  interest,  etc.  Special  care  should  be  taken  not 
to  leave  pupils  with  the  impression  that  great  world-wide  prob- 
lems can  be  expressed  and  solved  in  dogmatic  definitions. 
Nowhere  is  a  largeness  of  view  and  open-mindedness  more  es- 
sential than  here.  The  United  States  census  and  other  statisti- 
cal works  afford  ample  illustrative  material  by  means  of  which 
class  discussions  can  be  made  concrete.  The  publications  of 
the  state  and  federal  departments  of  labor  and  many  other  gov- 
ernment publications  can  be  used  with  profit.  Roscher's  state- 
ment that  the  point  of  departure,  as  well  as  the  aim  of  economic 
science,  is  man,  should  not  be  forgotten.  The  final  test  of 
economic  life  is  human  welfare. 

Useful  text  and  reference  books  can  be  secured  for  both  lines 
of  work,  and  neither  can 'or  should  completely  exclude  the  other. 


GERMAN  AND  LATIN. 

In  teaching  the  foreign  languages  in  the  high  school,  the 
teacher  should  never  lose  sight  of  their  value  as  a  means  of  giv- 
ing a  thorough  training  in  the  use  of  English.  In  fact  this 
value  in  itself  is  a  strong  justification  for  their  place  in  the  high 
school  course,  and  for  this  purpose  they  are  among  the  most 
practical  of  all  the  studies. 

This  training  is  along  three  lines: 

1st.  In  giving  ability  to  get  the  exact  thought  from  the  printed 
page;  in  other  words,  in  learning  to  read.  Under  the  instruc- 
tion of  a  capable  teacher  the  pupil  can  be  held  to  a  definiteness 
and  exactness  in  this  respect,  closely  approximating  that  which 
the  professional  man  must  reach  in  mastering  his  difficult 
reading. 

When  this  close  work  is  attempted  with  the  familiar  English, 
it  is  difficult  to  prevent  the  substitution  of  mere  superficial  read- 
ing, giving  a  vague  comprehension  of  a  few  of  the  more  prom- 
inent ideas,  for  the  intensive  study  necessary  to  understand  the 
foreign  language.  Teachers,  too,  are  often  inclined  to  accept 
this  slipshod  work  in  English  when  they  would  not  think  of 
doing  so  in  German  or  Latin. 

2nd.  In  enlarging  the  pupil's  vocabulary  through  the  selection 
of  the  proper  English  word  to  fit  the  thought.  This  affords  an 
excellent  opportunity  for  a  close  study  of  the  meaning  of  words 
and  may  be  made  more  profitable  than  the  formal  word  analy- 
sis so  often  taken. 

3rd.  In  training  in  the  mechanics  of  English  expression.  The 
translation  of  what  is  to  the  pupil  a  confused  and  unnatural  ar- 
rangement of  ideas  into  clear  readable  English  is  the  test  by 
which  the  teacher  may  know  how  thoroughly  the  thought  has 


64  WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH   SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906. 


been  mastered  by  the  pupil.  The  absurd  and  ridiculous  hodge- 
podge of  words  so  often  allowed  to  pass  as  translations  cannot 
be  too  strongly  condemned.  Not  only  is  the  disciplinary  value 
of  the  study  almost  wholly  lost,  but  the  effect  upon  the  pupil's 
English  must  be  distinctly  bad  in  every  way  except  in  so  far  as 
the  translation  is  an  example  of  what  is  to  be  avoided.  The 
translation  should  be  criticised  and  worked  over  until  it  be- 
comes good,  idiomatic  English.  When  pupils  understand  that 
this  is  to  be  always  demanded,  they  will  prepare  for  it  and  there 
will  be  growth  accordingly.  There  should  be  considerable 
written  translation.  An  excellent  exercise  is  to  write  a  trans- 
lation upon  the  board  and  have  the  class  criticise  it  until  it  is 
satisfactory.  In  this  way  the  laws  of  English  composition, 
grammar,  and  rhetoric  may  be  practically  applied.  Of  course 
all  this  will  take  time,  but  results  can  be  reached  which  will 
amply  justify  the  extra  time  and  effort.  The  added  power 
which  will  come  from  the  thorough  wrork  will  probably  make 
up  for  the  loss,  and  the  teacher  may  find  the  class  easily  com- 
pleting the  usual  amount.  In  any  case,  the  great  object  should  : 
be  quality  of  work;  and  good  English  should  always  be  the  out- 
come of  the  study  of  the  foreign  language.  By  insisting  on  this 
the  other  great  benefits  usually  ascribed  to  such  study  will  be 
realized  in  the  fullest  measure. 


GERMAN. 

It  should  be  continually  borne  in  mind  by  the  teacher  that 
German,  as  every  other  subject,  should  be  taught  in  the  interest 
of  sound  results  and  not  merely  in  the  interest  of  the  most  expe- 
ditious preparation  for  college.  The  colloquial  side  of  this  sub- 
ject has  been  much  neglected  in  high  schools,  and  the  aim  of 
teachers  should  be  to  secure,  by  the  end  of  the  second  year,  not 
only  a  ready  reading  of  easy  German  texts  but  also  a  fair  abil- 
ity to  understand  easy  German  when  spoken  and  to  carry  on  a 
very  simple  conversation  based  upon  the  ordinary  occurrences 
of  daily  life  or  upon  the  texts  set  for  translation. 

The  following  outline  of  a  course  of  study  is  largely  based 
upon  the  report  of  the  Committee  of  Twelve  of  the  Modern 
Language  Associations  of  America,  which  may  be  found  in  the 
proceedings  of  the  National  Educational  Association  for  1889, 
page  732  ff.  Neatly  bound  copies  of  the  report  can  be  procured, 
at  the  price  of  sixteen  cents,  from  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Boston. 
Teachers  are  strongly  advised  to  secure  a  copy  of  this  report. 

The  "elementary,"  "intermediate,"  and  "advanced"  courses 
outlined  in  the  Report  correspond  approximately  to  high  school 
courses  of  two,  three  or  four  years,  respectively. 


WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH    SCHOOL   MANUAL,   190-6.  65 


THE  ELEMENTARY  COURSE  IN  GERMAN. 

A.  The  aim  of  the  instruction.      At   the   end   of   the   ele- 
mentary course  in  German,  i.  e.,  at  the  end  of  the  second  year's 
work,  the  pupil  should  he  able  to  pronounce  and  translate  at 
sight  (into  good  idiomatic  English)  simple  German  prose,  help 
being  given  on  unusual  words  and  constructions,  to  prpve  his 
knowledge  of  elementary  grammar  by  putting  easy  English  sen- 
tences into  German,  and  to  carry  on  a  very  simple  conversation 
in  German. 

B.  The  work  to  be  done. 


First  Year. 

During  the  first  year  the  work  should  comprise:  (1)  careful 
drill  upon  pronunciation;  (2)  drill  upon  the  rudiments  of  gram- 
mar, that  is,  upon  the  inflection  of  the  articles,  of  such  nouns 
as  belong  to  the  language  of  everyday  'life,  of  adjectives,  pro- 
nouns, weak  verbs,  and  the  more  usual  strong  verbs;  also  upon 
the  use  of  the  more  common  prepositions,  the  simple  uses  of 
the  modal  auxiliaries  and  the  elementary  rules  of  syntax 
and  word  order;  (3)  the  memorizing  and  frequent  repetition  of 
easy  colloquial  sentences,  and  short  suitable  poems;  (4)  abund- 
ant easy  exercises  designed  not  only  to  fix  in  mind  the  forms 
and  principles  of  grammar,  but  also  to  cultivate  readiness  in 
the  reproduction  of  natural  forms  of  expression;  (5)  the  read- 
ing of  from  75  to  100  pages  of  graduated  texts  from  an  intro- 
ductory reader,  with  constant1  practice  in  translating  into 
German  easy  variations  upon  sentences  selected  from  the  read- 
ing lesson  (the  teacher  giving  the  English),  and  in  the  repro- 
duction from  memory  of  sentences  previously  read. 


Second  Year. 

During  the  second  year  the  work  should  comprise:  (1)  the 
pronouncing  and  translating  of  from  150  to  200  pages  of  litera- 
ture in  the  form  of  easy  stories  and  plays;  (2)  accompanying 
practice,  as  before,  in  the  translation  into  German  of  easy  var- 
iations upon  the  matter  read,  and  also  in  the  off-hand  repro- 
duction, sometimes  orally  and  sometimes  in  writing,  of  the  sub- 
stances of  short  and  easy  selected  passages;  (3)  continued  drill 
upon  the  rudiments  of  the  grammar,  directed  to  the  ends  of 
enabling  the  pupil,  first,  to  use  his  knowledge  with  facility  in 
the  formation  of  sentences,  and  second,  to  state  his  knowledge 
5 


66        WISCONSIN  FREE  HIGH  SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906. 


correctly  in  the  technical  language  of  grammar;  (4)  daily  con- 
versation from  five  to  ten  minutes  on  suitable  passages  se- 
lected from  the  reading  lessons: 


THE  INTERMEDIATE  COURSE   IN   GERMAN. 

In  addition  to  the  work  outlined  for  the  two  years  of  the  ele- 
mentary course,  students  during  the  third  year  should  read 
from  300  to  480  pages  of  moderately  difficult  prose  and  poetry, 
with  constant  practice  both  oral  and  written,  upon  portions  of 
the  texts  read.  Of  the  latter,  about  one-half  should  be  taken 
from  modern  prose,  and  the  other  half  from  poetry  and  the 
easier  plays  of  Schiller?  Goethe  or  Lessing.  The  work  in 
grammar,  accompanied  by  exercises  in  composition,  should  in- 
clude the  less  usual  strong  verbs,  the  more  idiomatic  uses  of 
prepositions,  conjunctions,  and  modal  particles,  and  the  essen- 
tials of  syntax  and  word  formation.  In  this  year  the  teacher 
should  make  a  systematic  effort  to  use  German  in  the  class 
room  for  all  exercises  suitable  for  such  treatment. 


THE   ADVANCED   COURSE   IN   GERMAN. 

The  work  of  the  fourth  year  should  comprise  the  reading  of 
from  400  to  500  pages  of  standard  literature  in  prose  and  poetry, 
with  reference  reading  in  the  history  of  German  literature, 
especially  upon  the  lives  and  works  of  the  authors  studied. 
Students  should  write  numerous  short  themes  upon  assigned 
subjects,  mostly  relating  to  the  text  read.  With  exception  of 
the  periods  devoted  to  grammar  and  composition,  the  work  of 
the  class  room  should  be  conducted  in  German  and  students 
should  be  required  to  answer  in  that  language  the  questions 
asked  by  the  teacher. 


SUGGESTIONS. 

(1)  Pronunciation. 

The  first  matter  of  importance  for  the  beginner  is  the  acqui- 
sition of  a  reasonably  accurate  pronunciation.  Daily  drill 
upon  the  subject  should  be  kept  up  inexorably  until  right 
habits  are  fixed.  It"  is  far  easier  to  learn  right  than  to  unlearn 
the  wrong.  In  all  oral  practice,  i.  e.,  in  all  exercises  in  which 
the  student  has  to  pronounce  German  words,  correct  pronun- 
ciation should  be  insisted  on.  The  teacher  will  find  a  careful 
treatment  of  pronunciation  in  Thomas's  German  Grammar 


WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH    SCHOOL  MANUAL,   1906.  67 

(Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  N.  Y.),  in  Victor's  German  Pronuncia- 
tion (Lemcke  &  Buechner,  N.  Y.),  and  in  Hempl's  German 
Orthography  and  Phonology  (Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston.) 

(2)  Grammar. 

As  the  present  tendency  in  modern  language  teaching  is  a 
wholesome  reaction  against  the  former  excessive  emphasis  on 
purely  theoretical  grammar,  the  teacher  should  beware  of  fall- 
ing into  the  opposite  mistake  of  trying  to  build  up  a  sound 
knowledge  of  a  foreign  language  without  grammar.  Although 
the  study  of  grammar  is  not  an  end  in  itself,  it  is  a  most  im- 
portant means  to  the  right  end,  and  during  the  elementary 
course,  especially  during  the  first  year,  there  should  be  constant 
and  careful  drill  in  the  principles  of  elementary  grammar. 
Much  repetition  will  be  needed,  even  though  at  times  it  may 
become  tedious;  for  the  time  spent  upon  a  thorough  drill  in  ele- 
mentary grammar  will  greatly  facilitate  satisfactory  subsequent 
progress  in  reading  and  speaking.  Especially  students  who  do 
not  study  a  classical  language  should  receive  a  thorough  gram- 
matical training  in  their  study  of  German. 

The  following  points  should  be  observed:  (a)  A  small 
amount  of  elementary  grammar  thoroughly  mastered  is  far 
more  valuable  than  a  large  amount  of  more  advanced  grammar 
superficially  acquired.  All  the  grammar  needed  may  be  found 
in  the  "first  parts"  of  the  larger  grammars,  or  in  a  good  intro- 
ductory book,  (b)  Whatever  is  regular  and  of  common  occur- 
rence is  far  more  important  than  the  rare  and  unusual.  Ele- 
mentary students  should  not  be  burdened  with  long  lists  of 
exceptions  or  with  rules  for  which  they  have  no  practical  use. 
(c)  The  teacher's  maxim  should  be:  Little  theory  and  much 
application.  The  work  in  grammar  should  be  made  as  prac- 
tical as  possible.  Glib  reciting  of  rules  and  paradigms  should 
never  be  accepted  as  a  substitute  for  the  actual  use  of  the  forms 
in  short  phrases  and  easy  sentences.  Most  of  the  grammar 
drill  should  be  in  the  form  of  oral  elementary  composition- 

(3)  Memorizing. 

The  proper  starting  point  in  teaching  a  modern  language  is 
the  familiar  language  of  everyday  life.  The  student  must 
begin  to  feel  at  home  in  it  before  he  can  begin  to  appreciate 
literary  and  poetic  forms  of  expression.  For  creating  this 
Sprachgefiihl,  one  of  the  best  kinds  of  drill  is  the  memorizing 
and  frequent  repetition  of  easy  colloquial  sentences.  Such 
sentences,  taken  from  some  phrase  book  or  carefully  selected 
from  suitable  texts,  can  be  dictated  to  the  students.  The  drill 
on  them  can  either  take  the  form  of  a  dialogue,  the  teacher  ask- 
ing questions  in  German,  or  the  teacher  can  give  the  thought 


68  WIISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906. 

in  English  and  call  for  a  translation.  The  customary  mem- 
orizing of  poems  is  less  useful  in  this  regard  as  poetry  often 
contains  rare  and  archaic  expressions.  Its  value  in  other  direc- 
tions, however,  is  sufficiently  great  to  warrant  its  continuance, 
provided  that  the  poems  are  carefully  chosen,  with  reference  to 
simplicity  and  naturalness  of  their  language.  During  the  in- 
termediate and  advanced  courses  the  memorizing  of  poetry  can 
be  used  to  good  advantage.  The  first  year's  work  does  not  call 
for  many  poems. 

(4)  Reading. 

Aside  from  the  German-English  exercisas  and  anecdotes  of 
the  grammar,  the  reading  matter  of  the  first  year  should  be  in 
a  very  elementary  reader,  as  Guerber's  "Marchen  und  Erzah- 
lungen,"  or  Seligmann's  "Altes  und  Neues."  During  the  sec- 
ond year  one  of  the  larger  readers  may  be  taken  up,  or  special 
editions  of  good  stories  and  plays  can  be  used.  One  or  two  of 
these  should  be  provided  with  exercises  based  on  the  text.  For 
suitable  reading  material  for  the  second  year,  as  well  as  for 
the  third  and  fourth  years,  see  pp.  63-4,  71,  and  73  of  the 
Report. 

Very  easy  parts  of  each  lesson  need  not  be  translated  in  class, 
and  especially  in  the  intermediate  and  advanced  course  transla- 
tion should  be  confined  to  test  passages  here  and  there  in  the 
lesson  to  gain  time  for  oral  work.  But  students  should  then 
always  be  given  an  opportunity  to  ask  questions  on  the  parts  of 
the  lesson  left  untranslated.  The  less  routine  translation  is 
done  in  class,  the  more  possible  is  it  to  insist  on  a  really  careful 
and  idiomatic  rendering  of  the  parts  chosen  for  translation, 
Valuable  time  can  also  be  saved  in  the  more  advanced  years  by 
assigning  some  relatively  easy  text  for  additional  outside  read- 
ing, testing  the  amounts  assigned  by  occasional  short  written 
examinations.  In  this  way,  shorter  lessons  can  be  assigned 
for  the  daily  recitations  and  be  treated  more  thoroughly.  To 
show  what  a  really  good  translation  means,  and  to  cultivate  the 
pupil's  literary  sense,  a  passage  of  the  German  text  should 
occasionally  be  given  out  for  a  carefully  prepared  written  trans- 
lation, with  instructions  to  make  the  work  just  as  good  as  pos- 
sible. Such  translations  should  then  be  criticised  by  the 
teacher  and  compared  with  one  another  in  the  class.  Attention 
should  then  be  called  to  the  more  delicate  points  of  idiom, 
choice  of  words,  word  order,  etc. 

A  short  and  carefully  chosen  passage  of  each  reading  lesson 
should  be  assigned  for  "intensive  study."  The  student  should 
be  required  to  practice  pronunciation  on  this  passage  especially, 
to  memorize  all  the  words  and  idioms  in  it,  to  learn  the  prin- 
cipal parts  of  all  the  nouns  and  verbs,  to  look  up  all  the  gram- 


WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,   1906.          69 


mar  rules  involved,  to  be  so  familiar  with  it  generally,  as  to  be 
able  to  give  its  contents  either  verbatim  or  in  his  own  language. 
This  passage  will  then  form  a  very  good  basis  for  conversational 
drill. 

(5)   Oral  drill. 

As  the  course  progresses,  the  student  should  be  given  more 
and  more  opportunity  for  hearing  and  speaking  the  foreign 
language.  This  refers  by  no  means  merely  to  conversation  in 
the  ordinary  sense  of  the  word.  The  latter  should  certainly 
not  be  emphasized  unless  the  teacher  has  a  fairly  good  practical 
command  of  the  language.  But  dictation,  oral  composition, 
free  retranslation  of  parts  of  the  texts  read,  recitation  of  mem- 
orized or  prepared  work,  expressive  reading  of  certain  passages 
by  the  teacher  and  other  similar  exercises  can  also  be  used  to 
good  advantage  in  training  the  student  in  readiness  to  under- 
stand and  express  himself  in  the  foreign  tongue.  In  all  of 
these  exercises,  to  make  them  really  valuable,  careful  pronun- 
ciation and  grammatical  correctness  must  be  rigorously  insisted 
upon.  Oral  work,  when  thoroughly  done,  is  of  the  greatest 
value;  when  superficially  treated,  it  is  likely  to  become  worse 
than  useless.  No  part  of  the  work  calls  for  greater  vigilance 
and  alertness  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  who  desires  to  gain 
the  best  results. 

(6)   Books  for  Reference. 

The  Teaching  of  German  in  Secondary  Schools — Elijah  W. 
Bagster — Collins.  Macmillan  Co.  N.  Y. 

Methods  of  Teaching  Modern  Languages  (by  thirteen  differ- 
ent authors).  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Boston.  90  cents. 

Bahlsen:  New  Method  of  Teaching  Modern  Languages. 
Translated  by  Dr.  M.  B.  Evans.  Teachers'  College  Record, 
Vol.  4,  No.  3.  30  cts. 

Bruel:  The  Teaching  of  Modern  Foreign  Languages  in  our 
Secondary  Schools.  Cambridge  (England),  1898-  50  cts. 

Rippmann:  Elements  of  Phonetics.  English,  French  and 
German.  Translated  and  adapted  from  Prof.  Victor's  "Kleine 
Phonetik."  London,  Dent  &  Co.  $1.00. 

Grandgent:  German  and  English  sounds.  Boston.  Ginn 
&  Co.  50  cts. 

Francke:  History  of  German  Literature.  N.  Y.  Holt  & 
Co.  $2.00.  (Does  not  extend  much  beyond  Goethe's  death.) 

Robertson:  History  of  German  Literature.  N.  Y.  Put- 
nam's Sons.  $3.50.  (Has  an  adequate  treatment  of  19th 
century  literature.) 

Hosmer:  A  Short  History  of  German  Literature.  St. 
Louis.  G.  I.  Jones  &  Co.  $2.00. 


70  WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH  .SCHOOL  MANUAL,   1906. 


A  fuller  list  of  reference  books  has  been  prepared  by  the 
German  department  of  the  State  University  and  can  be  had 
by  applying  to  the  Secretary  of  the  University  or  any  mem- 
ber of  the  German  department. 


LATIN. 


COURSE   OF   STUDY. 

First  year.—  Latin  lessons,  accompanied  from  an  early  stage 
by  the  reading  of  simple  selections.  From  twenty  to  thirty 
pages  of  an  easy,  consecutive  text  should  be  completed  by  good 
classes.  Selections  from  Nepos,  Viri  Romae,  or  Eutropius 
may  be  used.  In  all  written  exercises  the  long  vowels  should 
be  marked,  and  in  all  oral  exercises  pains  should  be  taken  to 
make  the  pronunciation  conform  to  the  quantities.  The  stu- 
dent should  be  taught  to  read  the  Latin  aloud  with  intelligent 
expression.  Sanity  in  First  Year  Latin — by  H.  W.  Johnson 
—Classics  Journal,  vol.  I,  No.  3,  February,  1906. 

Second  year. — Selections  from  Caesar's  Gallic  War  equiva- 
lent in  amount  to  four  books.  Selections  from  other  prose 
writers  such  as  Nepos,  may  be  taken  as  a  substitute  for  the 
Caesar.  The  equivalent  of  at  least  one  period  a  week  should 
be  devoted  to  grammar,  syntax,  and  prose  composition.  Read- 
ing aloud  and  translating,  both  prepared  and  unprepared  pas- 
sages, should  be  made  a  part  of  the  work.  A  little  pamphlet 
by  H.  W.  Johnston,  entitled,  " Second  Year  Latin,"  published 
and  furnished  gratis  by  Scott,  Foresman  &  Co.,  should  be  read 
by  all  teachers  of  Caesar. 

Third  Year. — Six  orations  of  Cicero.  Selections  from  the 
letters  may  be  substituted  for  two  orations.  The  equivalent  of 
at  least  one  period  a  week  should  be  devoted  to  grammar,  syn- 
tax, and  prose  composition.  Special  attention  should  be  given 
to  the  translation  into  English,  and  to  the  study  of  Cicero's  life 
and  personality. 

Fourth  Year.  Six  books  of  Virgil's  Aeneid.  The  student 
should  acquire  the  ability  to  read  metrically  hexameters  at 
sight.  The  equivalent  of  at  least  one-half  period  a  week  should 
be  given  to  the  study  of  mythology.  Gayley's  Classic  myths  in 
English  Literature  is  very  helpful. 

The  foregoing  course  represents  the  minimum  amount  of 
Latin  to  be  read  in  four  years.  Many  an  ambitious  teacher 
will  do  at  least  from  one-third  to  one-half  more  than  this 
amount.  During  the  first  and  second  years  many  easy  selec- 
tions should  be  read.  This  plan  will  not  only  enlarge  and  fix 


WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,   1906.  71 


the  vocabulary  but  it  will  add  greatly  to  the  pupil's  enjoyment 
and  give  him  increased  facility  in  translation.  In  the  last 
months  of  each  year,  when  the  pupil  has  acquired  considerable 
facility  in  translating  the  author  of  that  year,  much  rapid  read- 
ing can  be  done.  Caesar  may  be  used  for  sight  reading  in  the 
third  and  Cicero  in  the  fourth  year. 


SUGGESTIONS   TO  TEACHERS. 

Pronunciation. — The  Roman  method  of  pronunciation  should 
be  used.  Peck's,  The  Roman  pronunciation  of  Latin,  Henry 
Holt  &  Co.,  will  be  useful  to  teachers.  In  pronouncing  proper 
names  in  translation  the  English  pronunciation  should  be  used. 
Otherwise  the  systems  used  by  the  history  and  Latin  students 
will  be  at  variance.  The  pronouncing  vocabulary  and  rules 
given  in  the  appendix  to  Webster's  International  Dictionary 
will  serve  as  a  guide. 

Vocabulary. — The  acquisition  of  a  good  vocabulary  neces- 
sarily demands  much  of  the  student's  time.  While  the  learning 
of  new  words  and  attention  to  word  study  is  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance and  should  receive  attention  daily,  it  is  largely  by 
much  reading  that  the  vocabulary  is  kept  fresh  and  increased. 
Ambitious  and  thoughtful  teachers  will  strive,  in  every  way 
possible,  to  increase  the  amount  of  Latin  which  the  pupils  read 
daily.  This  can  be  done  by  reading  rapidly  several  pages  in 
review,  by  translating  at  sight  in  advance,  and  by  requiring 
pupils  to  give  the  substance  of  selections  which  have  been 
assigned  for  outside  reading.  In  the  earlier  stages  of  the  study 
of  an  author  the  teacher  and  the  pupil  should  frequently  work 
together,  the  teacher  leading  the  way  and  opening  up  the  ad- 
vance lesson,  sometimes  merely  rapidly  translating.  See  Prof. 
Friedrich  Paulsen's  article  in  the  educational  Review,  Novem- 
ber, 1899,  on  Changes  in  Latin  Teaching  in  Germany,  for  a 
description  of  this  method  of  teaching  languages. 

Grammar  and  Syntax. — The  necessity  of  a  thorough  acquain- 
tance with  the  forms  of  the  language  is  so  obvious  that  it  will 
seem  superfluous  to  call  attention  to  it  here.  Yet  the  fact  is 
that  no  part  of  Laun  preparation  is  more  defective  than  this. 
The  forms  as  contained  in  the  lesson  book  or  as  referred  to  in 
the  grammar  must  be  mastered  absolutely.  Well-directed 
memorizing,  followed  by  written  exercises,  dictation,  oral  prac- 
tice and  frequent  reviews,  ought  to  produce  good  results. 
There  should  be  definite  and  systematic  grammar  and  syntax 
lessons  throughout  the  four  years,  the  topics  being  selected  ac- 


72  WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH  SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906. 


cording  to  the  needs  of  the  pupils  and  the  text  read.  This 
work  and  the  practice  in  composition  should  be  done  largely  in 
the  fall  and  winter  months. 

Composition. — The  purpose  of  this  study  as  pursued  in  the 
high  school,  is  not  to  make  pupils  skillful  in  writing  Latin,  but 
to  enable  them  by  use  to  make  the  forms  and  syntax  of  the 
language  more  completely  their  own.  The  composition  of  a  sin- 
gle Latin  sentence,  illustrating  certain  constructions  or  idioms 
of  the  language,  will  do  more  to  impress  these  upon  the  mind 
of  the  pupil  than  half  a  dozen  parsing  exercises  involving  the 
same  points.  Latin  composition  may  be  pursued  by  devoting 
one  or  more  exercises  of  each  week  exclusively  to  this  work; 
or,  by  means  of  daily  exercises  based  upon  limited  portions  of 
the  Latin  read  in  class.  Many  teachers  believe  that  it  is  well 
to  supplement  the  practice  in  connected-discourse-com  position 
based  on  Caesar  and  Cicero,  with  lessons  in  which  the  sentences 
are  selected  with  reference  to  illustrating  some  important 
principle  in  grammar  or  syntax. 

Preparation  for  Caesar. — A  good  class  with  a  good  teacher 
ought  to  finish  a  lesson-book  in  time  to  do  some  work  prepara- 
tory to  Caesar  in  the  first  year;  for  in  most  cases  the  transi- 
tion from  an  elementary  book  to  Caesar  is  too  abrupt.  If  Caesar 
is  to  be  read  immediately,  the  teacher  must  exercise  great  dili- 
gence in  anticipating  the  difficulties  of  the  advance  lesson  and 
striving  by  every  means  to  make  smooth  the  somewhat  uneven 
path.  Extracts  from  Roman  history,  Fabulae  Faciles,  Viri 
Romae  and  extracts  from  Eutropius  have  been  used  as  a 
preparation  for  Caesar  with  good  results. 

Translation. — An  exact  and  idiomatic  rendering  into  Eng- 
lish of  the  thought  of  a  difficult  Latin  sentence  is  perhaps  the 
chief  visible  result  of  Latin  instruction,  and  teachers  who  are 
not  working  to  secure  that  end  have  in  a  measure  lost  sight  of 
the  goal.  Literal  translations  are  often  indispensable  by  way 
of  explanation  and  for  purpose  of  illustration,  but  if  they  are 
not  at  the  same  time  idiomatic,  they  should  always  be  accom- 
panied by  idiomatic  renderings.  "Translation  English"  is  not 
only  painful  to  hear  but  it  destroys  the  linguistic  sensibility 
which  all  instruction  should  foster  and  gives  most  grotesque  con- 
ceptions of  Roman  literature. 

Not  only  should  good  English  be  insisted  on  always,  but  some 
effort  varying  with  the  maturity  of  the  class  or  of  the  individ- 
ual pupil,  should  be  made  to  produce  the  style  of  the  author 
translated.  The  succession  of  Latin  authors  read  in  school  is 
all  that  could  be  desired  in  this  regard.  The  straightforward 


WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,   1906.  73 


narrative  style  of  Caesar  may  be  reproduced  without  difficulty 
by  pupils  who  have  not  read  much  in  English.  In  connection 
with  Cicero,  translations  may  be  improved  and  made  more 
spirited  by  bringing  out  some  characteristics  of  oratorical  Eng- 
lish, with  examples  from  speeches  of  American  orators.  Mil- 
ton'and  Spenser  studied  in  the  high  school  ought  to  contribute 
to  better  translations  in  Virgil. 

Roman  life,  literature  and  history. — The  Latin  authors  read 
in  the  high  school  afford  a  considerable  field  for  the  study  of  lit- 
erary form  and  historical  events.  This  should  not  be  neglected. 
For  example,  in  Cicero  the  pupil  should  be  required  to  analyze 
the  argument  of  the  speeches  read  and  thus  to  obtain  some  con- 
ception of  the  form  of  an  ancient  oration.  It  is  a  good  plan 
to  call  upon  some  member  of  the  class  each  day  to  give  orally  a 
synopsis  of  the  review  or  advance  lesson,  and  at  the  conclusion 
of  any  work  the  argument  should  be  carefully  read,  so  that  each 
pupil  should  carry  away  a  definite  idea  of  the  work  as  a  whole, 
both  in  respect  to  form  and  content.  Every  high  school  library 
should  be  provided  with  a  copy  of  Ward's  Fowler's  (G.  P. 
Putnam's  Sons)  Caesar,  Strachan — Davidson's  Cicero  and 
Sellar's  Virgil  (G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons) — the  last  perhaps  more 
especially  for  the  teacher.  By  judicious  reference  to  them 
much  can  be  done  to  stimulate  and  maintain  a  living  interest  in 
the  men  whose  works  are  read.  Many  topics  relating  to  Roman 
life  may  be  worked  up  by  the  pupils  and  presented  to  the  class 
in  such  a  way  as  to  increase  the  interest  in  Latin. 


JOURNALS,  MAPS,   ATLASES,  AND  REFERENCE  BOOKS. 

Journals. — Teachers  of  Latin  should  subscribe  for  one  or 
two  good  periodicals  like  the  Classical  Journal  and  the  School 
Review. 

Maps  and  Atlases. — Good  wall  maps  of  the  Roman  Empire 
and  the  Italian  peninsula  are  needed  in  every  school  for  the 
classes  in  Ancient  History  and  Latin.  Kiepert's  maps  (Rand, 
McNally  &  Co.)  are  excellent  in  every  way.  Johnston's  maps 
are  less  expensive  but  very  serviceable. 

A  classical  atlas  should  be  upon  every  reference  table.  The 
best  are  Kiepert's  (Benj.  H.  Sanborn  &  Co.),  Ginn  &  Co.'s 
Classical  Atlas,  and  Benj.  H.  Sanborn's  Classical  Atlas. 

Books  for  teachers.—  The  following  books  relate  more  partic- 
ularly to  methods  of  teaching  Latin: 

Bennett,  C.  E.,  and  Bristol,  Geo.  P.,  The  Teaching  of  Latin 
and  Greek  in  the  Secondary  School;  Longmans,  Green  & 
Co. 


74  WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906. 


Hale,  W.  G.,  Aims  and  Methods  of  Classical  Study;  Ginn  &Co. 

Hale,  W.  G.,  The  Art  of  Reading  Latin;  Ginn  &  Co. 

Lodge,  Gonzales,  Helps  for  the  Teaching  of  Caesar;  Teacher's 

College  Record,  Columbia  University. 
Tolman,  H.  C.,  The  Art  of  Translating;  B.  H.  Sanborn  &  Co. 

Reference  books. — The  following  books  are  indispensable 
where  Latin  is  taught.  Histories  of  Rome  are  not  included  in 
this  list: 

Becker,  W.  A.,  Gailus:  or  Roman  Scenes  of  the  Times  of  Au- 
gustus; Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 
Church,  Alfred  J.,  Roman  Life  in  the  Days  of  Cicero;   Dodd, 

Mead  &  Co. 

Forsythe,  William,  Life  of  Cicero;  Scribner's  Sons. 
Froude,  J.  A.,  Caesar:  A  Sketch;  Scribner's  Sons. 

Fowler,  H.  A.,  A  History  of  Roman  Literature;  D.  Appleton 

&Co. 

Gay  ley,  C.  M.,  Classic  Myths  in  English  Literature;  Ginn  &  Co. 
Gow,  J.,  A  Companion  to  School  Classics;  The  Macmillan  Co. 
Harper's  Dictionary  of  Classical  Literature  and  Antiquities; 

American  Book  Co. 
Harper's  Latin  Dictionary,   Edition  of  1895;   American  Book 

Co. 
Johnston,  H.  W.,   The   Private    Life   of  the   Romans;    Scott, 

Foresman  &  Co. 

Judson,  H.  P.,  Caesar's  Army;  Ginn  &  Co. 
Nettleship,  Henry,  Virgil;  D.  Appleton  &  Co. 
Sellar,  W.  Y.,  The  Roman  Poets  of  the  Augustan  Age:  Virgil; 

The  Macmillan  Co. 

Shumway,  E.  L.,  A  Day  in  Ancient  Rome;  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co. 
Strachan,  Davidson — Cicero;  Warde  Fowler,  Caesar;  G.  P. 

Putnam's  Sons. 
Trollope,  Anthony,  The  Life  of  Cicero;  Harper  &  Brothers. 


GR'EEK. 

The  suggestions  here  made  with  regard  to  the  study  of  Greek 
in  high  schools  are  all  to  be  found  in  the  Report  on  College 
Entrance  Requirements  made  to  the  National  Educational  As- 
sociation, 1899. 

The  first  principles  should  be  learned  from  some  good  be- 
ginner's book.  *•*.;*;_•  It  cannot  be  said  too  plainly  that  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  forms  is  absolutely  necessary  not  only 
for  entrance  to  college,  but  as  a  basis  of  any  accurate  reading. 
The  Greek  grammar  must  be  carefully  and  constantly  and  per- 
sistently studied.  Special  emphasis  must  be  put  upon  the 


WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906.  75 

mastery  of  forms,  which  are  to  be  repeatedly  written  as  well  as 
said;  the  elements  of  syntax  are  necessary,  but  will  not  seem 
difficult  after  some  study  of  Latin. 

From  the  beginning  systematic  instruction  in  writing  Greek 
sentences  should  be  given,  and  this  should  continue  through- 
out the  preparatory  course,  as  auxiliary  to  and  indeed  a  part 
of  grammatical  study.  Its  main  object  is  to  train  the  pupil  to 
read  Greek  readily  and  accurately.  In  the  hands  of  a  skillful 
teacher  the  most  efficient  means  of  teaching  connected  dis- 
course is  turning  back  into  Greek  passages  of  Attic  prose  that 
have  been  translated  by  the  pupil.  If  the  teacher  cannot  find 
time  always  for  this,  text  books  embodying  this  idea  can  be 
had  from  several  of  the  publishers  of  Greek  books. 

The  practice  of  reading  Greek  aloud  with  intelligent  expres- 
sion and  careful  attention  to  the  quantity  of  syllables  must  be 
insisted  upon.  This  should  be  a  part  of  every  recitation,  just 
as  translation,  that  the  pupil  may  be  taught  to  appreciate  the 
beauty  of  form  and  sound  and  to  feel  the  rhythm  of  the  sen- 
tence. Metrical  reading  should  commence  as  soon  as  Homer 
is  begun. 

Sight  reading,  or  the  reading  of  unprepared  passages  of  easy 
Greek,  is  an  exercise  which  should  be  early  begun  and  continued 
throughout  the  course.  This  may  be  so  managed  as  to  enliven 
a  part  of  every  recitation  and  at  the  same  time  to  quicken  the 
pupil's  confidence  in  his  own  knowledge  and  skill. 

What  has  been  said  in  the  Latin  section  about  translation 
applies  quite  as  much  to  the  Greek.  Really  good  translation, 
accurate  and  idiomatic,  is  not  simply  an  intellectual  feat  and 
of  great  disciplinary  value;  under  the  direction  of  a  skillful 
teacher  translation  from  Latin  and  Greek  contributes  as  per- 
haps nothing  else  can  to  the  mastery  of  style  in  English. 

The  teacher  should  insist  that  the  Classical  Atlas  (e.  g.  Kie- 
pert's)  be  constantly  used,  and  no  question  that  is  important  in 
history  or  antiquities  or  social  life  or  mythology  should  be  left 
unexplained.  Gulick's  Life  of  the  Ancient  Greeks  (Appleton's) 
or  Gayley's  Classic  Myths  (Ginn  &  Co.)  are  not  only  service- 
able but  interesting. 

It  is  practically  universally  agreed  that  Zenophon  and  Homer 
are  the  Greek  to  be  read  in  the  high  school.  (The  amount  re- 
quired is  four  books  of  the  Anabasis  and  three  of  the  Iliad  or 
four  of  the  Odyssey.)  Text  books  in  these  authors,  for  high 
school  pupils,  are  provided  with  vocabularies. 


76        WISCONSIN  FREE  HIGH  SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906. 

COURSE  OF  STUDY  RECOMMENDED  IN  GREEK. 
First  Year. 

First  and  second  terms:     Introductory  lessons. 
Third  term:     Xenophon's  Anabasis  (20  to  30  pages). 

Practice  in  reading  at  sight  and  in  writing  Greek. 

Systematic  study  of  grammar  begun . 

Second  Year. 

Zenophon's  Anabasis  (continued),  either  alone  or  with  other 
Attic  prose  (75  to  120  pages). 

Practice  in  reading  at  sight,  systematic  study  of  grammar, 
thorough  grammatical  review,  and  practice  in  writing 
Greek,  based  on  study  of  Books  I  and  II  of  the  Anab- 
asis. 

Third  Year. 

Homer's  Iliad  i-iii  (omitting  ii,  494-2nd),  or  Odyssey  i-iv. 
Attic  prose  (30  to  40  pages)  with  practice  in  writing  Greek; 

grammar;  practice  in  reading  at  sight. 

NOTE:  If  only  two  years  can  be  given  to  preparatory  work 
in  Greek,  at  least  one  book  of  the  Anabasis,  better  two,  should 
be  read  the  first  year.  The  remainder  of  the  Anabasis  and  the 
Homer  may  then  be  read  in  the  second  year;  but  this  will  re- 
quire some  extra  time  and  very  steady  work. 

ENGLISH. 

There  are  three  great  purposes  in  the  work  in  English  in  the 
high  school: 

1.  To  give  the  pupil  ability  to  think  clearly  to  the  end  of  a 
topic  and  to  express  his  thought  in  clear,  concise  and  correct 
oral  and  written  language. 

2.  To  train  him  so  that  he  can  understand  what  he  hears 
and  reads. 

3.  To  give  him  an  appreciation  of  literature. 


WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906.  77 


The  first  two  of  these  purposes  should  not  be  confined  to  the 
exercise  of  English  proper,  but  should  be  distinctly  kept  in  mind 
in  every  recitation.  Clear,  correct  expression  is  a  test  of  clear 
understanding  of  any  subject.  While  it  may  perhaps  not  al- 
ways follow  that  a  pupil  does  not  understand  an  idea  because 
he  cannot  express  it,  it  is  almost  certain  that  he  has  a  fairly 
good  comprehension  of  it  if  he  can  state  -it  well  in  his  own  lan- 
guage. The  work  in  the  different  mathematical  studies,  for  in- 
stance, which  give  such  an  abundant  opportunity  for  thought, 
would  be  greatly  strengthened  if  more  attention  were  given  to 
the  exact  expression.  The  same  fact  is  in  a  great  measure  true 
of  the  other  studies  of  the  course.  The  teacher  should  never 
lose  sight  of  the  form  of  even  the  short  recitation,  while  the 
topical  recitations  now  so  commonly  required,  supply  excellent 
opportunity  for  more  extended  oral  composition. 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

Little  aid  can  be  given  in  the  matter  of  method  of  teaching 
composition.  In  no  work  in  the  high  school  are  the  tact  and 
ability  of  the  teacher  more  clearly  shown  than  in  the  interest 
and  results  obtained  in  this  study.  A  few  fundamental  facts 
and  principles  should,  however,  be  kept  in  mind. 

First.  The  aim  as  stated  above  should  be  to  give  ability  to 
the  pupil  to  express  his  own  thought  in  clear,  concise  and  cor- 
rect language. 

Second.  That  if  the  work  is  to  be  effective,  the  pupil  must 
be  interested  in  what  he  is  writing;  pupils  as  a  rule  like  to  ex- 
press that  which  they  understand  and  in  which  they  are  inter- 
ested. 

Formal  exercises,  written  according  to  a  mechanical  stand- 
ard, are  likely  to  be  distasteful,  irksome,  and  productive  of 
little  good.  Topics  relating  to  the  pupil's  interest  outside  of 
school  and  to  his  everyday  work  in  the  school  (his  present 
business),  should  be  used  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  they 
usually  are.  History  and  the  different  studies  in  science  have 
in  them  very  valuable  material  which  will  aid  both  in  compo- 
sition and  in  the  studies  themselves.  Physics,  taken  as  it  gen- 
erally is,  in  the  last  year  of  the  high  school,  lends  itself  espe- 
cially well  to  this  use.  Topics  such  as  a  steam  engine,  com- 
pound microscope,  pumps,  capillarity,  inclined  plane,  and  many 
others,  treated  fully  from  their  fundamental  principles,  afford 
material  for  long  or  short  compositions  requiring  a  definite, 
logical  outline.  These  will  appeal  to  the  student  as  being 
closely  connected  with  his  daily  work  so  that  he  looks  upon 
them  as  very  practical  and  useful.  The  preparation  of  para- 


78  WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH   SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906, 


graph  and  theme  outlines  of  the  daily  lessons  in  such  subjects 
as  admit  of  this  treatment,  is  a  very  valuable  exercise  in  com- 
position, and  at  the  same  time  gives  definite  training  in  ability 
to  study  in  a  systematic  and  intelligent  way. 

Third.  Rules  and  forms  of  rhetoric  according  to  which  com- 
positions must  be  written  should  not  be  given.  The  expression 
of  the  pupil  should  be*  that  which  is  natural  to  him,  and  if  it 
is  not  rhetorical  it  should  become  so  as  a  result  of  growth 
through  reading  the  works  of  masters  and  the  study  of  their 
characteristics.  The  discriminations  of  the  kinds  of  discourse 
into  narrative,  expository,  and  descriptive,  should  not  be  made 
the  test  of  his  composition,  especially  in  the  first  years  of  the 
course.  The  formal  study  of  rhetoric  by  means  of  lessons  as- 
signed from  a  text-book  day  after  day  is  of  very  doubtful  value; 
the  principles  of  the  subject  should  be  taught  inductively,  in 
connection  with  the  reading  and  composition. 

A  text-book- in  grammar  and  one  in  composition  and  rhetoric 
should  be  in  the  hands  of  the  pupil  for  reference  and  occasional 
assigned  lessons  throughout  the  course.  About  one-half  the 
time  of  the  work  in  English  in  the  first  and  second  years 
should  be  given  to  composition,  and  about  one-fifth  in  the  third 
and  fourth.  All  written  work  should  be  promptly  and  carefully 
examined  by  the  teacher,  and  errors  indicated  by  some  system 
of  signs  which  shall  leave  the  pupil  to  make  his  own  correction. 
Criticisms  made  in  conference  with  the  pupil  are,  perhaps,  the 
most  effective  of  all.  The  longer  themes  written  by  the  pupils 
should  be  filed  by  the  teacher  in  some  systematic  way  so  that 
they  may  afterward  be  referred  to  in  case  it  is  desirable  to  do 
so  for  any  purpose.  At  stated  times  these  may  be  returned. 


READING  OF   MASTERPIECES. 

The  most  common  criticism  on  high  school  work  made,  not 
only  by  authorities  in  higher  schools  but  by  the  general  public, 
is  that  the  pupils  are  not  able  to  read.  The  idea  is  too  common 
with  teachers  of  English  that  the  close,  intensive  study  neces- 
sary to  comprehend  the  thought  of  a  difficult  passage  is  likely 
to  detract  from  the  interest  necessary  to  secure  the  proper  ap- 
preciation as  a  piece  of  literature.  While  there  is  a  measure 
of  truth  in  this,  especially  if  the  teacher  has  not  a  full  appre- 
ciation of  the  proper  relations  of  the  different  purposes  of  the 
study  of  English  in  the  high  school,  yet  the  danger  is  much 
greater  in  the  opposite  direction,  that  the  interest  aroused  is 
merely  theatrical,  superficial,  and  really  weakening  in  effeet. 
Far  too  many  of  the  questions  asked  are  not  such  as  will  call 


WilSCONSIN   FREE   HIGH    SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906.  79 

out  real  study  and  thought  on  the  part  of  the  average  high 
school  pupil;  they  are  too  general  and  require  too  great  ma- 
turity for  their  answers;  in  other  words,  they  are  college  ques- 
tions. Questions  for  high  school  pupils  should  be  very  speci- 
fic and  within  the  ability  of  the  class. 

The  first  duty  of  the  high  school  is  the  very  practical  one  of 
training  the  pupil  to  read.  Teachers  of  English  may  well  learn 
from  the  teachers  of  Latin  in  this  respect.  The  greatest 
practical  value  of  Latin  in  the  high  school  lies  in  the  fact  that 
it  gives  a  training  in  the  power  to  read  closely,  and  to  express 
clearly  the  thought  of  what  is  read.  The  capable  teacher 
questions  closely,  applies  grammatical  principles,  and  uses  all 
possible  means  to  compel  the  pupil  to  get  the  exact  thought  of 
the  author.  The  final  test  comes  in  the  correct,  readable  trans- 
lation. 

In  English  as  in  Latin  the  material  for  this  training  must 
be  the  matter  read.  This  should  be  of  so  difficult  a  nature  as 
to  require  close  study  to  get  the  thought.  Some  selections 
recommended  for  high  school  reading,  give  little  opportu- 
nity for  this  intensive  study;  their  construction  and  meaning 
are  perfectly  clear.  Such  have  their  place  in  the  course,  but 
their  value  lies  in  other  directions.  Others  are  nearly  as  diffi- 
cult as  Latin  itself.  -.  Not  only  should  the  thought  of  the  selec- 
tion be  mastered,  but  this  mastering  should  be  done  in  so  sys- 
tematic a  way  that  power  is  given  to  apply  to  fresh  difficulties. 
This  study  should  give  the  ability  clearly  to  express  the  thought 
by  oral  reading. 

The  following  list  of  books  contains  nearly  all  of  the  master- 
pieces commonly  approved  for  use  in  literary  readings.  The 
figures  set  opposite  indicate  the  year  or  years  of  the  high  school 
course  in  which  they  are  commonly  offered: 

Addison — Spectator  Papers,  2. 

Sir  Roger  de  Cover ly,  '2. 
Arnold — Sohrab  and  Rustum,  2. 
Bacon — Essays,  3. 
Burke— On  Conciliation,  3-4. 
Burns— Cotter's  Saturday  Night,  2-3. 
Carlyle — Essay  on  Burns,  4. 

Heroes  and  hero  worship,  4. 
Chaucer— Prolog.     Knight's  Tale,  4. 
Coleridge— Ancient  Mariner,  3-4. 
Cooper— Last  of  the  Mohicans,  1. 
Dickens-Tale  of  Two  Cities  (outside;,  4. 

David  Copperfield  (outside,),  3. 

Christmas  Carol,  1. 
Eliot,  George— Silas  Marner,  1-4. 
Emerson— Lincoln,  3. 

American  Scholar,  4. 

Self  Reliance,  4. 

Compensation,  4. 

Fortunes  of  the  Republic,  3. 


80  WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906. 


Franklin— Autobiography  (outside),  1-4. 
Goldsmith— Deserted  Village,  2-3. 
Gray— Elegy,  2-3. 

Hawthorne— Twice  Told  Tales,  Part  I,  1. 
Irving— Sketch  Book  (selections),  1. 

Tales  of  a  Traveler  (selections),  1. 
Lamb— Essays  of  Elia,  2-3. 
Lincoln— Gettysburg  Speech,  1. 

Second  Inaugural,  3. 
Longfellow — Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn,  Part  I,  1. 

Evangeline,  1  or  8th  grade. 
Lowell — Crisis,  1-4. 
Essays,  4. 

Vision  of  Sir  Launfal,  2. 
Milton— Shorter  Poems,  3-4. 

Paradise  Lost,  4.     (Usually  a  failure  in  high  school  classes.) 
Macaulay  — Essay  on  Addison,  4. 
Life  of  Johnson,  4. 
Lord  Clive,  3. 
Milton,  4. 

Warren  Hastings,  4. 

Palgrave — Golden  Treasury,  1st  series,  1-4. 
Poe-Gold  Bug,  1. 
Poems,  2-4. 

Pope— Essay  an  Man  (outside^,  4. 
Iliad,  Books  I,  IV,  XX,  2. 
Ruskin— Sesame  and  Lilies,  3-4. 
Scott— Lady  of  the  Lake,  1. 

Ivanhoe,  1. 

Schurz  -On  the  Death  of  Lincoln,  3. 
Shakespeare  —Julius  Caesar,  1-2. 

Merchant  of  Venice,  1-2. 
Midsummer  Night's  Dream,  3. 
Tempest,  3-4. 
Macbeth,  4. 

Stevenson— Treasure  Island,  1-4. 
Tennyson— Enoch  Arden,  1. 

Idylls,  2. 
Warner  -  Essays,  1-2. 

Hunting  of  the  Deer,  1-2. 
Washington— Farewell  Address,  4. 
Webster-First  Bunker  Hill  Oration,  3. 

Adams  and  Jefferson,  3. 
Whittier— Snow  Bound,  1-2. 
Wordsworth— Intimations  of  Immortality,  3-4. 


WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906.  81 


GRAMMAR  AND  RHETORIC. 

In  English  as  in  Latin  the  great  instruments  for  reaching 
the  above  results  are  grammar  and  rhetoric;  the  former  through 
syntax  and  analysis,  and  the  latter  through  the  paragraph  and 
the  theme.  When  the  pupil  definitely  comprehends  the  rela- 
tions of  the  different  elements  of  the  sentence,  and  when  he 
knows  the  topic  sentence  and  the  relation  of  the  other  sentences 
of  the  paragraph  to  this  topic  sentence,  he  is  in  a  condition  to 
appreciate  the  value  and  the  appropriateness  of  the  setting  of 
the  thoughts  as  a  whole. 

A  caution  may  be  necessary  here.  The  thought  in  the  above 
is  emphatically  not  to  teach  grammar  as  an  end,  but  to  use  it 
as  an  instrument  in  getting  the  thought  of  what  is  being  read. 
It  should  be  made  use  of  only  when  necessary  for  this.  Eng- 
lish grammar  should  continually  be  used  in  all  of  the  years  of 
the  course  as  a  means  of  criticism  and  interpretation.  The 
fact  is,  that  today,  in  many  schools,  it  is  almost  never  referred 
to  outside  of  the  grammar  classes. 

Every  pupil,  upon  entering  a  high  school,  should  be  able  to 
define  the  various  terms  employed  in  elementary  grammar,  to 
give  the  principal  rules  of  syntax,  rules  for  spelling  and  rules 
for  use  of  capitals.  It  is  especially  necessary  that  pupils  have 
some  definite  knowledge  of  the  parts  of  the  sentence,  and  abil- 
ity to  analyze  and  parse  plain  English. 

The  study  of  formal  grammar  as  such,  should  have  no  place 
in  .the  high  school  before  the  third  or  fourth  year.  The  amount 
usually  given  in  the  grades  is  enough  for  use  as  an  aid  in  the 
mastery  of  thought  in  reading,  and  in  the  correction  of  com- 
positions, and  it  should  be  so  used  throughout  the  entire  course. 
If  pupils  are  found  deficient  and  a  special  class  is  necessary, 
it  can  hardly  be  considered  high  school  work. 

If  occasional  weaknesses  are  found,  it  may  be  well  to  teach 
special  topics  as  needed,  with  the  distinct  understanding  that 
this  is  done  that  they  may  be  afterward  applied  throughout  the 
course. 

A  semester  of  formal  grammar  not  earlier  than  the  third  year 
will  prove  an  excellent  disclipine  as  a  training  to  distinguish 
niceties  of  thought  and  language  with  their  appropriate  modes 
of  expression.  By  that  time  the  pupil  will  have  gained  suffi- 
cient maturity  to  understand  something  of  grammar  as  the  sci- 
ence of  language,  and  will  be  able  to  apply  its  laws  in  dealing 
with  the  difficult  selections  indicated  for  use  in  the  fourth 
year. 

The  following  syntactical  and  rhetorical  rules,  or  a  similar 
list,  should  be  known  in  such  form  as  to  be  readily  reproduced 
at  any  moment. 
6 


82  WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,   190B. 


RULES. 

1.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  subject  of  a  finite  verb  is  in  the  nom- 

inative case. 

2.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  modify  another  by  denoting  possession  is  in 

the  possessive  case. 

3.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  direct  object  of  a  transitive  verb  or 

verbal  is  in  the  objective  case. 

4.  A  pronoun  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in  person,  number  and  gender. 

5.  A  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  number  and  person. 

6.  The  tense  forms  and  infinitives  in  subordinate  elements  should  indi- 

cate time  that  shall  correspond  with  the  time  denoted  by  the  sen- 
tence. 

7.  Never  use  the  past  participle  for  the  past  tense,  nor  the  past  tense  for 

the  past  participle. 

8.  The  objective  complement  of  a  verb  agrees  in  case  with  the  object  of 

the  verb. 

9.  Modifying  elements  should  be  placed  as  near  to  the  words  they  modify 

as  other  requirements  will  permit. 

10.  The  parts  of  a  sentence  should  be  alike  in  form  if  they  express  like  re- 

lations in  the  thought. 

11.  When  a  verb  has  two  or  more  subjects, ,or  a  pronoun  has  two  or  more 

antecedents  connected  by  or,  or  nor,  it  agrees  with  the  nearest. 

12.  To  express  -futurity  use  shall  in  the  first  person  and  wilt  in  the  sec- 

ond and  third.  To  express  promise,  purpose,  determination,  obliga- 
tion or  inevitable  action  which  the  speaker  means  to  control,  use 
will  in  the  first  person  and  shall  in  the  second  and  third. 

13.  When  a  verb  affirms  something  of  many  as  individuals,  it  must  be  in 

the  plural  number. 

14.  The  word  number  followed  by  of  with  a  plural  noun,  meaning  many 

or  several,  must  have  a  plural  verb;  but  number  preceded  by  the 
takes  a  singular  verb. 

15.  The  comparative  is  used  when  two  things  or  two  classes  of  things  are 

compared. 

16.  Do  not  use  the  adverb  in  place  of  the  predicate  adjective  after  verbs 

of  incomplete  predication. 

17.  Avoid  the  use  of  double  negatives. 

Note:  A  few  simple  but  sufficiently  adequate  rules  for  the  use  of 
the  comma  and  semicolon  should  be  taught  in  connection  with  the 
study  of  grammar,  and  much  practice  in  applying  them  to  writing 
other  than  their  own  should  be  given:  this,  in  connection  with  the 
study  of  grammar  or  with  the  study  of  composition. 


WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,   1906.  83 


HISTORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

In  many  schools  altogether  too  much  time  is  spent  in  text- 
book study  of  the  history  of  literature.  In  a  majority  of  classes 
such  study  is  uninteresting  and  unprofitable.  It  is  likely  to 
consist  in  the  mere  acquirement  of  a  store  of  facts  and  book 
statements  memorized  for  the  occasion,  and  beyond  the  power 
of  appreciation  of  the  pupils.  Such  work  does  more  harm  than 
good,  since  the  facts  are  forgotten  long  before  the  power  to 
apply  them  in  their  proper  relation  is  developed,  and  at  the 
same  time  a  dislike  for  the  whole  subject  is  formed. 

When  a  student  becomes  so  filled  with  the  writings  of  any 
author  that  his  personality  becomes  of  interest,  then  the 'biog- 
raphy may  be  read  with  profit,  but  the  biography  of  an  author 
should  usually  be  approached  through  his  writings.  In  rare 
cases  it  may  happen  that  the  life  of  an  author  is  so  interesting 
as  to  arouse  an  interest  in  the  masterpiece  to  be  read.  In  such 
cases  the  teacher  may  be  justified  in  approaching  his  work 
through  his  biography. 

The  writings  of  certain  typical  authors  should  be  studied  in 
class  and  accompanied  by  such  a  study  of  history  and  biog- 
raphy as  to  give  the  student,  in  an  orderly  manner,  some  defi- 
nite ideas  of  the  growth  of  literature,  its  relations  to  the  time 
in  which  it  is  produced,  and  some  notion  of  the  growth  of 
ideas.  The  history  should  serve  as  a  frame  work  to  systematic 
reading,  and  assist  in  giving  some  idea  of  the  entirety  of  liter- 
ature. 

The  above  would  imply  that  more  or  less  of  biography  and 
history  should  be  given  throughout  the  course  as  a  part  of  the 
study  of  English.  The  formal  knitting  together  of  this  into  a 
connected  whole  would,  perhaps,  naturally  come  in  the  fourth 
year.  Inasmuch,  however,  as  all  students  cannot  take  fourth 
year  English  under  the  present  arrangement  of  courses,  it 
would  seem  that  the  third  year  will  best  suit  the  conditions. 
A  course  of  study  should  accordingly  be  so  arranged  that  the 
classics  read  may  be  made  the  basis  for  the  necessary  group- 
ing to  give  the  brief  general  survey  of  literature  adapted  to 
high  school  work.  An  amount  of  time  equal  to  not  more  than 
one  period  per  week  should  be  given  to  this  formal  study.  If 
a  text  is  used  it  should  be  rather  for  reference  and  arrange- 
ment of  matter  presented  than  as  material  for  formal  study. 

If  this  work  is  taken  in  the  third  year  as  suggested,  there 
will  be  opportunity  in  the  fourth  year  for  students  who  are  not 
taking  two  foreign  languages,  to  make  an  intensive  study  of 
some  difficult  English  classics  in  a  way  which  will  give  a  train- 
ing nearly  or  quite  equal  in  value  to  that  given  by  a  foreign 


84  WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH  SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906. 


language.  The  lack  of  this  training  is  now  one  of  the  weak 
points  in  our  English  courses  and  it  is  very  desirable  that 
these  courses  be  strengthened  in  this  direction. 


BOOKS    FOR   TEACHERS. 

How  to  Teach  Reading  in   the   Public   Schools— S.  H.    Clark. 
Scott,  Foresman  &  Co. 

The   Teaching   of    English — Carpenter,    Baker  &   Scott. 
Longmans,  Green  &  Co. 

Talks  on  the  Study  of  Literature — Arlo  Bates.     Houghton, 
Mifflin&Co. 

Talks  on  the  Writing  of  English — Arlo  Bates.     Houghton, 
Mifflin  &  Co. 

The  Teaching  of  English — Chubb.     Macmillan. 
Lectures  on  Language — S.  S.  Laurie.     Macmillan. 
Education,     Vol.  XXV.,  No.  1.,  Sept.  1904. 
First  Steps  in   English  Composition — Patterson.     Flana- 
gan. 


MANUAL  TRAINING. 

The  law  provides  that  the  courses  of  study,  and  the  scope 
and  character  of  the  work  shall  be  such  as  to  meet  the  approval 
of  the  state  superintendent.  Up  to  the  present  time  no  definite 
general  requirements  in  these  respects  have  been  made,  but 
the  work  of  each  school  has  been  individually  considered. 

The  limit  of  twenty  schools  to  receive  state  aid  has  been 
reached,  and  the  status  of  manual  training  in  Wisconsin  is  such 
that  it  is  deemed  best  to  establish  a  minimum  amount  of  time 
and  scope  of  work  in  such  departments,  the  same  to  go  into 
effect  for  the  school  year  1907-1908.  It  is  highly  desirable  that 
schools  receiving  state  aid  for  the  year  1906-1907  shall  approx- 
imate this  limit,  and  in  case  any  school  falls  considerably  be- 
low, aid  will  be  refused  and  the  school  taken  from  the  list. 


SCOPE  OF  THE  WORK. 

The  scheme  of  work  should  require  at  least  seventy  minutes 
daily  for  two  years  in  the  high  school,  preceded  by  preliminary 
preparation  equivalent  to  one  period  weekly  for  one  year.  It 
should  provide  for  two  optional  courses:  (1)  Instruction  and 


WISCONSIN  FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906. 


85 


exercises  in  wood  work  and  drawing.  (2)  Instruction  and  ex- 
ercises in  domestic  science. 

Specifically,  course  one  should  include: 

(a)  Instruction   and  exercises   in    free-hand   and   mechanical 

drawing  of  objects  used  as  exercises. 

(b)  Instruction  and  exercises  in  bench  work  in  wood-sawing, 

planing,  tenons,  mortises  and  joinery. 

(c)  Instruction  and   exercises  in  lathe  work  in  wood,   wood 

turning,  face-plate,    and   center    turning,   polishing  and 
simple  designing. 

(d)  Project  work. 

(e)  Lessons  in  kinds  and  qualities  of  woods,  care  of  tools,  etc. 
While  it  is  not  intended  that  the  following  list  shall  be  an 

arbitrary  one,  it  includes  in  a  general  way  what  should  consti- 
tute suitable  work  with  tools  for  a  course  as  indicated  above. 
In  schools  which  provide  for  a  part  or  all  of  this  in  the  grades 
more  extended  work  in  carpentry  should  be  given. 


BENCH  WORK. 


1.  Exercise  in  squaring,  gaug- 

ing,      chamfering,       and 
rounding  with  plane. 

2.  Pointer. 

3.  Bench  hook. 

4.  Plate  mat. 

5.  Bill  file. 

6.  Coat  hanger. 

7.  Plant  pot  stand. 

8.  Pen  tray. 

9.  Hatchet  handle. 
10.  Broom  holder. 


11.  Bracket  shelf. 

12.  Towel  rack. 

13.  Coat  rack. 

14.  Knife  box. 

15.  Half  splice. 

16.  Mortise  tenon. 

17.  Double  tenon. 

18.  Mortise  and  tenon. 

19.  Keyed  tenon. 

20.  Dovetail. 

21.  Half  miter  frame. 


LATHE  WORK. 

1.  Plain  cylinder.     Involving:     Use  of  gouge  in  roughing 

and  finishing;  centering  and  preparing  stock  for  lathe; 
sharpening  tools;  speed  of  lathe. 

2.  Use  of  turning  or  skew  chisel. 

3.  Concave  turning  with  gouge. 

4.  Convex  aud  concave  turning.     Practice   with  chisel   and 

gouge. 

5.  Chisel  handle.     Polishing  in  lathe. 

6.  Turning  tool  handle. 

7.  Mallet. 


86  WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906. 


8.  Bracket.     Relation  of  bench  and  lathe  work. 

9.  Egg. 

10.  Rosette.     Face  plate  work. 

11.  Additional  face  plate  work. 

12.  Ring.     Making  and  use  of  chuck. 

13.  Plate.     Practice  in  chucking. 

14.  Goblet.     Inside  turning. 

15.  Napkin  ring.     Finishing  on  mandrel. 

16.  Hat  rack.     Practice  in  assembling. 

17.  Towel  rack.     Plain  and  face  plate  work  combined. 

18.  Candelabrum.     Same  as  above. 

19.  Mirror  frame.     Built  up  work. 

Course  two  should  include: 

(a)  Instruction  and  exercises  in  sewing — forms  of  stitches, 
piecing,   hemming,   darning^  mending,  patching,  cutting, 
fitting,  and  making  garments. 

(b)  Instruction  and  exercises  in  cooking — study  of  foods, 
dietetic  values  and  combinations,  uses  and  processes  of  cook- 
ing, invalid  cooking,  preparation  of  common  foods — soups, 
meats,   vegetables,  bread,  tea,  coffee,  cocoa,  cakes,  pies, 

, puddings,  etc. 

(c)  Serving  of  food,  study  of  markets,  food  materials  and 
their  preservation,  etc. 

(d)  Household    management — drainage,     water    supply, 
ventilation,  heating,  lighting,  etc. 


PART  III. 


Laws  and  Forms. 


88  WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906. 


STATUTES  RELATING  TO  FREE  HIGH 
SCHOOLS. 


How  established.  Section  490  (as  amended  by  Chapter  258, 
Laws  of  1905).  Any  town,  village  or  city  school  district  or 
sub-district  which  contains  within  its  limits  an  incorporated, 
village  jor  which  has  a  graded  school  of  not  less  than  two  de- 
partments may  establish  and  maintain  not  exceeding  two  high 
schools  in  the  manner  and  with  the  privileges  herein  provided ; 
but  no  such  school  shall  be  established  or  maintained  unless 
twenty-five  persons  of  school  age,  resident  of  the  town,  city  or 
village  or  scnool  district,  or  sub-district,  pas>  a  satisfactory  ex- 
amination in  the  branches  required  to  be  taught  in  the  common 
school  and  are  prepared  to  begin  a  high  school  course.  The 
question  of  establishing  such  schools  may  be  submitted  by  the 
town,  district,  sub-district,  village  board  or  common  council  to 
the  legally  qualified  voters  at  any  annual  or  special  meeting  or 
election  upon  written  resolution  therefor  proposed  for  adop- 
tion; provided  that  ten  days'  notice  of  such  purpose  embody- 
ing such  resolution  be  given  by  posting  five  copies  thereof  in 
five  different  public  places  in  such  town,  village,  city,  school 
district  or  sub-district,  or  by  publishing  such  notice  in  any 
newspaper  published  in  any  such  town,  village,  city,  school 
district  or  sub-district,  ten  days  prior  to  the  time  set  for  hold- 
ing such  meeting.  In  the  case  of  a  sub-district  the  meeting 
may  be  called  by  the  clerk  thereof.  The  vote  shall  be  taken 
by  ballot  and  canvassed  according  to  the  statutes  for  conduct- 
ing elections  in  such  municipality,  those  ballots  in  favor  being 
written  or  printed  "for  high  school,"  those  opposed,  "against 
high  school."  If  the  resolution  be  adopted  such  town,  district, 
sub-district,  village  or  city  shall  constitute  a  high  school  dis- 
trict. But  this  section  shall  not  apply  to  high  schools  already 


WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906.  gg 

established.  No  action  heretofore  taken  by  any  town,  village, 
city,  school  district  or  sub-district  in  voting  to  form  a  high 
school  or  joint  high  school  shall  be  invalid  by  reason  of  any  de- 
fect in  the  form  of  notice  given  or  the  time  such  notice  shall 
have  been  given,  posted  or  published;  but  all  steps  heretofore 
taken  by  any  tovm,  village,  city,  school  district  or  sub-district 
in  forming  a  high  school  or  joint  high  school  are  hereby  vali- 
dated, and  declared  to  conform  to  law. 

Joint  high  school  districts.  (Chapter  345,  Laws  of  1903, 
amending  Section  49.1,  Statutes  of  1898,  as  amended  by  Sec.  1, 
of  Ch.  57  of  the  Laws  of  1899,  and  also  amending  Section  492 
of  the  Statutes  of  1898.)  Section  491.  Two  or  more  adjoining 
towns  or  school  districts,  or  one  or  more  towns  or  school  dis- 
tricts and  an  incorporated  village  or  city,  when  the  same  to- 
gether will  make  a  district  of  contiguous  territory,  may  unite 
in  establishing  and  maintaining  any  sueh  high  school.  The 
resolution  proposing  the  same  shall  be  approved  and  submitted 
and  the  notice  of  election  signed  by  at  least  a  majority  of  the 
supervisors  of  each  town,  the  directors  of  each  school  district, 
the  common  council  of  such  city  and  trustees  of  such  village, 
if  any,  and  the  election  shall  be  notified  and  conducted  in  each 
town,  school  district,  city  or  village  as  provided  in  the  preced- 
ing section.  Such  resolution  shall  not  be  adopted  unless  a 
majority  of  the  votes  cast  in  each  such  town,  school  district, 
city  or  village,  be  in  favor  thereof.  The  votes  shall  be  can- 
vassed at  the  first  election,  and  all  subsequent  elections  in  the 
several  towns  as  at  town  meetings,  in  the  several  school  dis- 
tricts as  at  annual  school  district  meetings,  in  the  city,  if  any, 
as  at  a  charter  election,  and  in  the  village,  if  any,  as  at  vil- 
lage elections;  and  Lhc  supervisors  of  the  several  towns,  direct- 
ors of  said  school  districts,  common  council  of  such  city  and 
trustees  of  such  village  shall,  within  one  week  after  such  elec- 
tion, meet  and  canvass  the  votes  and  certify  the  result  to  the 
town  clerk  of  each  town,  the  clerk  of  each  school  district,  the 
clerk  of  such  city  and  to  the  village  clerk  of  such  village.  If 
such  resolution  be  adopted,  the  town,  or  towns,  school  district 
or  school  districts  and  city  and  village,  so  voting,  shall  con- 
stitute a  joint  high  school  district.  The  creation  of  a  new 
town  or  incorporation  of  a  village  out  of  the  territory  included 
in  a  free  high  school  district  shall  not  dissolve  nor  otherwise 
affect  such  district  but  siich  towns  or  town  and  village  shall 


90  WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906. 

thereafter  constitute  a  joint  high  school  district.  A  town 
school  district,  incorporated  village  or  city  contiguous  to  a 
free  high  school  district  may  become  joint  with  such  district 
upon  the  approval  and  submission  of  a  resolution  proposing 
the  same  and  the  terms  thereof,  and  notice  of  election  signed 
by  a  majority  of  the  supervisors  of  each  town,  directors  of  each 
school  district,  common  council  of  each  city,  and  trustees  of 
each  village,  if  any,  to  be  affected  and  the  adoption  of  such  res- 
olution by  a  majority  of  all  the  votes  cast  in  each  such  town, 
school  district,  city  or  village,  the  election  to  be  had  and  the 
result  canvassed  and  determined  in  the  manner  provided  herein 
for  the  organization  of  a  joint  high  school  district  in  the  first 
instance. 

Certificate.  Section  491a.  (Statutes  of  1898,  as  amended  by 
Chap.  214,  1899,  as  amended  b-'  Ohap.  345,  Laws  of  1901.) 
Whenever  a  frjee  high  school  shall  have  been  established  and 
maintained  as  provided  in  sections  490  and  491  for  at  least 
three  months,  and  the  proper  board  shall  have  made  the  report 
required  by  section  496  in  order  to  obtain  the  aid  furnished  by 
the  state  in  maintaining  free  high  schools,  they  shall  append 
thereto  a  certificate  that  such  school  is  established  and  main- 
tained in  a  district  composed  of  a  town ;  of  a  town  and  an  in- 
corporated village  within  the  town;  of  two  or  more  towns;  or 
of  two  or  more  towns  and  an  incorporated  village  in  one  or  in 
each  of  them. 

State  aid.  Section  491b.  (Statutes  of  1898,  as  amended  by 
Chap.  214,  Laws  of  1899,  as  amended  by  Chap.  345,  Laws  of 
1901.)  Upon  receiving  the  reports  and  appended  certificate  pro- 
vided for  in  section  496,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  state  super- 
intendent to  make  a  separate  and  distinct  class  of  the  schools 
thus  established  and  maintained  in  the  districts  designated  in 
section  491a  as  amended  by  this  act,  and  each  such  school  shall 
be  entitled  to  receive  from  the  general  fund  of  the  state,  annu- 
ally, one-half  the  amount  actually  expended  for  instruction 
therein;  and  said  superintendent  shall  fix  the  amount  to  be  paid 
to  each  of  said  high  schools  and  certify  the  same  to  the  secre- 
tary of  the  state  at  the  time  and  in  the  manner  he  is  now  re- 
quired to  fix  and  certify  to  him  the  amount  to  be  paid  to  high 
school  districts.  On  such  certificate,  at  any  time  after  the  first 
day  of  December,  the  same  shall  be  paid  to  the  district  treas- 


WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906.  91 

urer  out  of  the  state  treasury;  but  the  whole  amount  so  paid 
shall  not  exceed  twenty-five  thousand  dollars  in  any  one  year 
to  this  class  of  free  high  schools,  and  if  more  is  demanded  by 
such  districts  they  .shall  be  paid  proportionally.  The  secretary 
of  state  shall  annually  include  and  apportion  in  the  state  tax 
all  such  sums  as  shall  have  been  so  paid,  in  addition  to  t^e 
amount  authorized  to  be  paid  in  aid  of  free  high  schools  by 
section  496  and  in  addition  to  all  other  sums  to  be  levied  for  the 
year. 

Secton  491c.  (Chapter  174,  Laws  of  1905.)  It  is  hereby 
made  the  duty  of  the  town,  village,  city  or  school  district  board 
to  submit  any  resolution  proposed  in  pursuance  of  section  491 
as  amended  by  section  1  of  chapter  57  of  the  laws  of  1899,  as 
amended  by  section  1  of  chapter  345  of  the  laws  of  1903,  to  the 
voters  of  such  town,  village,  city  or  school  district  upon  the  fil- 
ing with  said  board  01  a  petition  in  writing,  praying  for  such 
submission,  signed  by  at  least  ten  per  cent,  of  the  qualified 
electors  who  voted  at  the  last  preceding  gubernatorial  election 
in  such  town,  city,  village  or  school  district. 

District  officers.  Section  492.  (Statutes  of  1898,  as  amended 
by  Chapter  329,  Laws  of  1905,  amending  Chapter  345,  Laws 
of  1903.)  The  officers  of  each  free  high  school  district  shall 
be  a  director,  treasurer  and  clerk,  whose  terms  shall  be  each 
three  years  beginning  with  the  annual  town  meetings,  and  until 
his  successor  shall  have  been  chosen ;  provided  that  at  the  first 
election  the  clerk  shall  be  chosen  for  one  year,  the  treasurer  for 
two  years  and  the  director  for  three  years,  and  all  of  said  of- 
ficers may  be  chosen  first  at  the  same  election  at  which  the 
question  of  establishing  a  high  school  is  submitted,  to  take  their 
offices  if  the  resolution  therefor  be  adopted.  Thereafter  such  . 
officers  shall  be  elected  at  the  annual  town  meeting  or  charter 
election.  The  votes  cast  shall  be  canvassed  and  the  result  de- 
clared and  certified  as  provided  in  the  preceding  sections.  But 
in  all  cities  not  under  a  county  superintendent  which  now  con- 
stitute free  high  school  districts  or  which  shall  hereafter  adopt 
the  resolution  provided  for  in  section  490  and  become  free  high 
school  districts,  the  board  of  education  in  each  such  city  shall 
be  the  high  school  board  and  the  city  treasurer  shall  be  ex- 
officio  the  treasurer  of  the  high  school  district  unless  the  board 
of  education  embrace  a  treasurer;  and  in  all  districts  main- 
taining a  graded  school  of  not  less  thn  two  departments  which 


92  WISCONSIN  FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906. 

now  constitute  free  high  school  districts  or  which  shall  here- 
after adopt  said  resolution,  the  district  board  in  each  shall  be 
the  high  school  board  and  the  district  treasurer  shall  be  the 
treasurer  of  the  high  school  district.  Whenever  a  sub-district 
shall  vote  to  establish  and  maintain  a  free  high  school,  such 
sub-district  shall  constitute  a  free  high  school  district,  shall 
elect  a  free  high  school  board,  the  clerk  for  one  year,  the  treas- 
urer for  two  years  and  the  director  for  three  years;  thereafter 
one  officer  shall  be  elected  annually  in  place  of  the  one  whose 
term  expires  at  the  annual  meeting  of  such  sub-district,  and 
such  high  school  board  shall  perform  all  the  duties  and  have 
the  same  authority  as  high  school  boards  in  towns  or  districts. 
The  clerk  shall  certify  all  taxes  levied  for  high  school  purposes 
to  the  town,  city  or  village  clerk,  who-  shall  apportion  the  same 
upon  the  taxable  property  of  the  sub-district,  and  the  treasurer 
of  such  municipality  shall  collect  the  taxes  thus  apportioned 
and  pay  over  the  same  to  the  high  school  treasurer  and  return 
the  delinquent  taxes  to  the  county  treasurer  as  in  other  cases. 
Where  a  high  school  district  consists  of  two  or  more  towns  or 
school  districts,  or  one  or  more  towns  or  school  districts  and 
an  incorporated  village  or  city,  the  officers  thereof  shall  be 
elected  for  the  same  terms  as  in  other  districts  by  joint  vote 
of  the  town  boards  of  such  towns  or  the  board  or  boards  of  the 
school  district  or  districts  ,town  or  towns,  and  three  members 
elected  by  the  board  of  the  village  or  council  of  the  city  which 
have  united  in  forming  such  district ;  except  that  in  all  cases 
where  the  free  high  school  district  is  composed  of  one  town  and 
an  incorporated  village  only,  the  election  of  a  high  school  district 
officers  shall  be  held  at  the  time  of  the  annual  town  meeting 
on  the  first  Tuesday  in  April  of  each  year  at  the  usual  polling 
places  for  holding  such  elections ;  provided  that  in  cases  where 
such  usual  polling  places  are  outside  the  village  limits  and  no 
village  election  is  held  on  that  day  an  additional  and  convenient 
polling  place  shall  be  provided  for  within  the  village  limits. 
Separate  ballots  and  a  separate  ballot  box  for  school  district 
officers  shall  be  provided.  The  names  of  the  candidates  for 
school  district  officers  voted  for  shall  be  printed  or  written  on 
a  ticket  separate  from  the  town  ticket  and  the  ballots  cast  at 
this  election  for  school  officers  shall  be  canvassed  and  counted 
at  a  joint  session  of  the  canvassing  boards  of  the  town  and  vil- 
lage. Such  town  boards  shall  hold  their  first  meeting  to  elect 
officers  at  two  o'clock  p.  m.  on  the  first  Tuesday  following 


WISCONSIN  FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906.  93 

the  town  meeting,  at  the  office  of  the  clerk  of  the  town  having 
the  largest  population,  and  thereafter  shall  meet  for  such  pur- 
pose at  the  same  time*  at  such  place  as  may  be  determined  upon. 
The  first  meeting  of  the  board  or  boards  of  the  town  or  towns 
or  a  school  district  or  districts  with  the  members  elected  by 
the  board  of  any  village  (with  the  above  exception)  or  council 
of  any  city  which  forms  such  a  district  shall  be  held  at  two 
o'clock  p.  m.  on  the  first  Tuesday  next  following  the  village  or 
city  election  at  the  office  of  the  clerk  of  such  village  or  city;  all 
subsequent  meetings  shall  be  held  at  the  same  time  at  such 
place  as  may  be  determined  upon.  A  majority  of  all  the  mem- 
bers representing  such  town  or  towns,  school  district  or  dis- 
tricts, and  such  village  board  or  city  council  shall  be  necessary 
to  constitute  a  quorum.  The  secretary  of  the  meetings  of 
such  boards  shall  certify  the  names  of  the  officers  of  the  district 
elected  thereat  to  all  the  clerks  of  the  towns,  school  districts, 
village  or  city  in  the  district.  The  officers  so  elected  shall 
have  the  same  authority,  be  charged  with  the  same  duties  and 
be  under  the  same  liabilities  as  other  officers  of  such  districts. 

High  school  board— Township  system.  Chapter  253,  laws  of 
1901.  Section  1.  (492a.)  The  town  board  of  school  directors 
in  any  towtnship  now  organized  or  which  may  be  hereafter  or- 
ganized under  the  township  system  of  school  government,shall 
be  and  is  hereby  constituted  the  free  high  school  board  for 
the  town  as  a  free  high  school  district.  In  such  cases  the 
secretary  of  the  town  board  of  school  directors,  shall  be  ex- 
officio  clerk,  the  president  of  the  board  shall  be  ex-officio  direc- 
tor, and  the  town  treasurer  shall  be  ex-officio  treasurer  of  the 
free  high  school  board  of  said  district.  Said  board  is  hereby 
authorized  to  perform  all  and  singular  the  duties  prescribed 
b^  law  for  free  high  school  officers  and  boards,  and  the  func- 
tion and  duty  of  free  high  school  boards  heretofore  organized 
and  acting  as  such  in  a  free  high  school  district  consisting  of  a 
town  having  the  township  system  of  school  government  , shall 
cease  and  be  of  no  effect  on  and  after  the  lawful  surrender  of 
records,  papers,  moneys  and  other  property  as  hereinafter  pro- 
vided. The  records  and  accounts  of  the  board  created  by  this 
act  shall  be  kept  separate  and  distinct  from  the  records  and  ac- 
counts which  the  said  board  are  required  to  keep  as  a  town 
board  of  school  directors.  The  free  high  school  board  in  any 


94  WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH  (SCHOOL  MANUAL,   1906. 

existing  free  high  school  district  composed  of  a  single  town 
organized  under  the  township  system  of  school  government,  is 
hereby  authorized  and  directed  immediately  upon  the  passage 
of  this  act.  to  deliver  to  the  care  and  custody  of  the  free  high 
school  board  herein  provided  for  in  such  cases,  all  records,  pa- 
pers, money,  and  other  property  of  the  free  high  school  district, 
and  the  free  high  school  board  herein  provided  for  shall  accept 
the  care  and  custody  of  such  records,  papers,  money  and  other 
property  and  use  them  for  and  in  behalf  of  the  free  high  school 
district  in  conformity  to  law. 

Officers'  duties;  other  statutes  apply.  Section  493.  Such  of- 
ficers shall  constitute  the  high  school  board,  and  shall  conduct 
the  affairs  of  the  high  school  district  on  the  same  general  plan 
provided  for  a  school  district,  and  possess,  with  respect  to  such 
high  school  district,  all  the  powers  and  be  charged  with  all  the 
duties  conferred  and  imposed  by  these  statutes  on  the  district 
officers  and  district  board  of  a  school  district  applicable  to  such 
high  school  district ;  the  treasurer  shall  give  a  like  bond,  to  be 
a-pproved  and  filed  in  a  similar  manner.  The  high  school  dis- 
trict clerk  shall  make  ?  similar  report  to  that  required  by  sec- 
tion 462,  omitting  the  first  subdivision.  t  The  board  may  grade 
such  school  and  establish  the  branches  of  study  to  be  taught 
therein,  under  the  advice  of  the  state  superintendent.  Every 
forfeiture  and  punishment  for  neglect  or  violation  of  duty  in 
a  school  district  officer  shall  apply  to  a  high  school  district 
officer  for  like  neglect  or  violation.  The  reports  of  free  high 
schools  in  cities  not  lender  a  county  superindent  shall  be  in- 
cluded in  the  reports  from  sucn  cities  to  the  state  superin- 
tendent. 

Schools  free;  teachers'  qualifications.  Section  494.  All 
such  hierh  schools  shall  be  free  to  all  pupils  resident  in  the  dis- 
trict. Every  principal  of  such  school  shall,  in  addition  to  his 
qualifications  as  teacher  of  a  common  school,  be  a  graduate  of 
some  university,  college  or  normal  school,  hold  a  state  certificate 
or  pass  an  examination  in  the  studies  reauired  to  be  taught  in 
any  such  school;  r>rovided,  the  state  certificates  authorized  by 
law1  and  the  certificates  authorized  by  section  49£a  shall  qual- 
ify their  holders  both  as  principals  and  as  teachers  of  common 
schools ;  and  each  principal  and  assistant  teacher  in  a  free  high 
school  shall  be  eligible  to  teach  only  on  approval  of  his  certificate 


WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH   SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906.  95 

by  the  state  superintendent ;  and  the  high  school  board  or  boards 
of  education  having  charge  of  such  schools  shall  determine, 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  such  superintendent,  the  course 
of  study  and  minimum  standard  of  qualification  for  admission 
to  the  same. 

Residents  of  towns  and  villages  without  free  high  schools 
may  attend  free  high  schools  in  other  districts — Tuition,  how 
paid.  (Chap.  329,  Laws  ("of  1903,  amendatory  of  Oh.  188  of 
the  Laws  of  1901.)  Section  1.  The  free  high  school  board 
of  any  free  high  school  district  organized  under  the  laws  of 
this  state,  shall  admit  <to  the  high  school  under  its  control, 
whenever  the  facilities  for  seating  and  instruction  will  warrant, 
any  person  of  school  age  prepared  to  enter  such  school,  who 
may  reside  in  any  town  or  incorporated  village,  but  not  within 
any  free  high  school  district,  and  who  shall  have  completed  the 
course  of  study  in  the  school  district  in  which  he  resides,  or 
one  equivalent  thereto.  Persons  so  admitted  shall  be  entitled 
to  the  Isame  privileges  and  be  subject  to  the  same  rules  and 
regulations  as  pupils  of  the  school  who  are  residents  of  the 
free  high  school  district. 

Tuition  fee,  statement  of.  Section  2.  Whenever  persons,  not 
residing  in  any  free  high  school  district  and  having  com- 
pleted the  course  of  study  in  the  school  district  in  which  they 
reside,  or  one  equivalent  thereto,  as  herein  provided,  enter  any 
free  high  school,  the  free  high  school  board  of  that  district  shall 
be  entitled  and  is  hereby  authorized  to  charge  a  tuition  fee  for 
such  pupils  not  to  exceed  fifty  cents  per  week.  On  or  before 
the  first  day  of  July  in  each  year,  the  secretary  of  the  free 
high  school  board  shall  make  a  sworn  statement  to  the  clerk  of 
the  city,  town  or  village  from  which  any  person  may  have  been 
admitted  to  said  free  high  school.  Said  statement  shall  set'  forth 
the  residence,  name,  zge  and  date  of  entrance  to  such  school, 
and  number  of  months'  attendance  during  the  preceding  school 
year  of  each  person  <?o  admitted  from  such  city,  town  or  village ; 
this  statement  shall  show  the  amount  of  tuition  which,  under 
the  provisions  of  this  act,  the  district  is  entitled  to  receive  for 
each  person  reported  as  having  been  a  member  of  the  school 
from  such  city,  town  or  village,  and  the  aggregate  sum  for  tui- 
tion for  all  persons  so  Emitted  fom  each  city,  town  or  village, 
which  statement  shall  be  filed  as  a  claim  against  the  town, 


96  "WISCONSIN  FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,   1906. 

city  or  village  where  such  person  resides,  and  allowed  as  other 
claims  are  allowed. 

Evidence  of  completion  of  course  of  study,  what  is  sufficient, 
Section  3.  The  usual  diploma  issued  by  any  school  or  school 
district  organized  under  the  laws  of  the  state,  shall  be  sufficient 
evidence  of  the  completion  of  the  course  of  study  hereinbefore 
mentioned,  and  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  state  superintendent, 
in  all  cases  where  a  course  of  study  is  not  already  prescribed,  to 
prescribe  a  course  of  study  and  designate  what  shall  constitute 
a  completion  thereof  under  this  act.  A  duplicate  of  such  di- 
ploma or  a  copy  thereof  duly  certfiied  as  such,  by  any  of  the 
persons  signing  the  original,  shall  be  delivered  upon  request 
to  the  persons  named  therein,  and  shall  be  filed  by  him  with 
the  secretary  of  the  free  high  school  board  of  the  free  high 
school  district,  upon  his  admission  to  its  high  school.  A  cer- 
tificate from  the  county  superintendent  of  the  completion  of 
such  course,  or  that  the  diploma  hereinbefore  referred  to  has 
been  properly  issued  to  the  person  named  therein,  shall  have 
the  same  effect  as  such  diploma,  as  evidence  of  the  completion 
of  the  course  of  study.  All  duplicate  diplomas,  or  certified  cop- 
ies thereof,  or  certificates  of  county  superintendents  so  filed, 
shall  be  attached  to  the  sworn  statement  of  such  secretary  here- 
inbefore provided  for. 

Tuition,  how  collected  in  villages.  Section  4.  The  village 
clerk  shall  enter  upon  the  tax  roll  of  the  village  for  the  en- 
suing year  such  sums  as  may  be  due  for  tuition  on  account  of 
residents  of  the  village  who  have  attended  such  free  high  school 
or  schools,  and  the  amounts  so  entered  shall  be  collected  when 
and  as  other  taxes  are  collected,  and  shall  be  paid  when  so 
collected,  to  the  treasurer  of  the  free  high  school  district  or  dis- 
tricts, where  such  persons  have  attended  the  free  high  school 
or  schools. 

How  collected  in  towns.  Section  5.  The  clerk  of  any  town 
not  having  within  its  territory  a  free  high  school  district,  shall 
enter  upon  the  tax  roll  of  the  town  for  the  ensuing  year  such 
sums  as  may  be  due  for  tuition  on  account  of  residents  of  the 
town  who  have  attended  such  free  high  school  or  schools,  and 
the  amounts  so  entered  shall  be  collected  when  and  as  other 
taxes  are  collected,  and  shall  be  paid  when  so  collected,  to  the 


WISCONSIN    FREE   HIGH    SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906.  97 

treasurer  of  the  free  high  school  district  where  such  persons 
have  attended  the  free  high  school  or  schools. 

How  collected  in  portion  of  town  or  city  not  in  district.  Sec- 
tion 6.  The  clerk  of  any  town  or  city,  a  portion  of  which  con- 
stitutes or  forms  a  part  of  a  free  high  school  district,  shall  en- 
ter upon  the  tax  roil  for  that  part  of  the  town  or  city,  not 
Within  a  free  high  school  district,  such  sums  as  may  be  due 
for  tuition  on  account  of  residents  of  that  portion  of  the  town 
or  city,  that  have  attended  such  free  high  school  or  schools, 
and  the  amounts  so  entered  shall  be  collected  when,  and  as 
other  taxes  are  collected  and  shall  be  paid  when  so  collected, 
to  the  treasurer  of  the  free  high  school  district  or  districts 
where  such  persons  have  attended  the  free  high  school  or 
schools. 

Taxes,  apportionment  of.  Section  495.  The  high  school  board 
shall  annually,  on  or  before  the  second  Monday  in  September,, 
meet  and  determine  the  amount  necessary  to  be  raised  by  tax 
for  the  support  of.  such  high  school,  and  certify  the  same  to- 
the  proper  town,  city  or  village  clerk ;  if  a  joint  high  school  dis- 
trict they  shall  certify  to  the  clerk  of  each  town  or  to  such 
clerk  and  the  village  clerk  the  proportionate  amount  thereof 
to  be  raised  by  such  town  or  village,  such  proportion  to  be 
determined  according  to  the  total  valuation  of  all  the  taxable 
property  therein  as  equalized  by  the  boards  of  review,  state- 
'  ments  of  which  shall,  as  soon  as  the  assessment  is  complete, 
be  sent  by  the  respective  town  or  village  clerks  to  the  clerk 
of  such  district.  Such  tax  shall  be  apportioned  on  the  next  tax 
roll  by  such  clerk  or  other  officer  making  the  same,  and  col- 
lected and  returned  as  other  taxes,  and  paid  to  the  high  school 
district  treasurer.  Such  moneys  shall  be  paid  out  only  on 
orders  drawn  and  countersigned  as  prescribed  in  case  of  school 
districts.  Any  town  which  is  a  single  high  school  district  may, 
by  resolution  adopted  at  the  annual  town  meeting,  limit  the 
amount  to  be  raised  for  high  school  purposes  during  such  year. 
In  case  of  a  joint  high  school  district,  the  town  boards  of  the 
several  towns  or  of  the  town  and  village  or  towns  and  villages 
embraced  may  by  joint  resolution  adopted  by  all  such  boards 
before  the  first  day  of  July,  likewise  limit  the  amount  to  be- 
raised  therein. 
1 


98  WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,   1906. 

Providing  for  town  free  high  school  buildings.  (Chapter 
123,  Laws  of  1903,  amending  Chapter  27,  Statutes  of  1898,  by 
thje  addition  of  a  ne\v  section  to  be  known  as  Section  495a.) 
Section  495a.  The  electors  of  any  town  organized  as  a  town 
free  high  school  district  are  authorized  at  any  annual  town 
meeting  or  special  town  meeting,  regularly  called,  to  levy  a  tax 
upon  the  real  and  personal  property  of  said  town  free  high 
school  district  for  the  purpose  of  purchasing  a  site,  erecting 
a  suitable  school  building  thereon,  and  furnishing  said  building 
with  the  necessary  furniture,  and  heating  and  ventilating  ap- 
paratus. 

Powers  of  electors — Buildings  for  town  free  high  school  dis- 
tricts. (Chapter  351,  Laws  of  1905.)  Section  1.  Upon  the 
filing  with  the  town  clerk  or  clerks  of  each  town  included  in  any 
town  free  high  school  district  and  with  the  village  clerk  of  any 
village  included  therein,  a  petition  in  writing  signed  by  at  least 
ten  per  cent  of  the  qualified  electors  of  such  town  high  school 
district  as  determined  by  the  last  preceding  gubernatorial  elec- 
tion asking  to  have  submitted  to  a  vote  of  the  electors  of  said 
district  the  question  of  erecting  a  new  school  building  therein 
or  building  an  addition  to  a  school  house  or  furnishing  such 
building  with  necessary  furniture  and  heating  and  ventilating 
apparatus,  the  supervisors  of  the  several  towns  and  the  trustees 
of  any  village  included  in  any  such  joint  free  high  school  dis- 
trict, shall  give  notice  of  an  election  to  be  held  in  such  towns  or 
town  and  towns  and  village  for  the  purpose  of  voting  upon  such 
question,  which  shall  be  submitted  to1  be  voted  upon  in  the  form 
of  a  resolution  embodying  the  question  to  be  submitted  and  the 
amount  of  m;oney  proposed  to  be  raised  for  such  purpose  upon 
which  the  electors  shall  vote  aye  or  nay,  and  such  resolution 
shall  be  adopted  if  a  majority  of  the  total  vote  in  the  entire 
joint  free  high  school  district  be  in  favor  thereof.  Before 
issuing  notice  of  such  election  the  town  clerks  of  the  several 
towns  and  villages  ii  any,  included  in  such  school  district, 
sha1!  meet  and  determine  on  a  time  /for  holding  such  election, 
which  shall  be  held  in  each  town  and  village  upon  the  same  day, 
and  within  ten  days  after  such  election  shall  have  been  had 
the  clerks  of  the  several  towns  and  villages  included  in  such 
district  shall  meet  and  canvass  the  returns  (of  such  election 
and  announce  the  result  thereof  and  make  a  written  report 
thereon  and  file  the  same  with  the  clerks  of  the  several  towns 


WISCONSIN    FREE   HIGH   SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906.  99 

and  villages  included  in  such  school  district.  Such  election 
shall  be  noticed  and  conducted  and  the  votes  counted  in  the 
several  towns  as  at  town  meetings  and  in  a  village,  if  any,  as  at 
village  elections. 

Borrowing  money.  (Chap.  342,  Laws  of  1901.)  For  the 
purposes  expressed  in  section  474  of  the  statutes  of  1898  and 
chapter  40  of  the  laws  of  1901,  any  high  school  district  board 
is  hereby  authorized  and  empowered  to  borrow  money  when- 
ever directed  by  the  electors  of  such  high  school  district  assem- 
bled at  a  meeting  regularly  called  and  held  for  that  purpose, 
pursuant  to  the  provisions  of  section  427  of  the  statutes  of  1898. 
The  payment  thereof  shall  be  provided  for  by  said  board  by  a 
tax  to  be  raised  and  certified  as  provided  in  this  section. 

State  aid,  how  obtained.  Section  496.  (Statutes  of  1898,  as 
amended  by  Chap.  214,  Laws  of  1899,,  as  amended  by  Chap.  345, 
Laws  of  1901.)  Any  high  school  district  which  shall  have 
established  a  free  high  school  according  to  the  provisions  of 
these  statutes,  and  shall  have  maintained  the  same  for  not  less 
than  three  months  in  any  school  year,  shall  be  entitled  to 
receive  from  the  general  fund  of  the  state  annually  one-half 
of  the  amount  actually  expended  for  instruction  in  its  high 
school  during  such  year  over  and  above  the  amount  required 
by  law  to  be  expended  for  common  school  purposes,  but  not  to 
exceed  in  one  year  five  hundred  dollars  to  one  district:  pro- 
vided, this  limitation!  shall  not  apply  to  the  class  of  high  schools 
designated  in  section  491a,  as  amended  by  this  act.  To  obtain 
such  aid  the  high  school  board,  or  in  cities  not  under  a  county 
superintendent,  the  president  and  secretary  of  the  board  of 
education  and  the  treasurer,  shall  on  or  before  the  first  day  of 
November,  report  in  duplicate  to  the  state  superintendent,  un- 
der their  oaths  the  amount  actually  expended  for  instruction 
during  the  previous  school  year,  specifying  the  several  items 
thereof,  with  the  date  and  the  object  of  each  fully.  Thereupon 
said  superintendent  shall  fix  the  amount  to  be  paid  such  district 
and  certify  the  same  to  the  secretary  of  state  with  one  of  such 
reports  annexed ;  provided,  the  state  superintendent  may  with- 
hold such  certificate  i'rom  any  district  for  reasons  based  upon 
failure  to  comply  with  the  law  relating  to  free  high  schools 
which  reason  he  shall  transmit  to  the  school  board  thereof  on 


100       WISCONSIN  FREE  HIGH  SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906. 

or  before  the  thirteenth  day  of  the  next  succeeding  June.  On 
such  certificate,  at  any  time  after  the  first  day  of  December,  the 
certified  amount  shall  be  paid  to  the  district  treasurer  out  of 
the  state  treasury.  The  secretary  of  state  shall  iannually  in- 
clude and  apportion  in  the  state  tax  all  such  sums  as  shall  have 
been  so  paid.  "Whenever,  by  any  neglect  or  omission,  any  free 
high  school  shall  fail  to  have  apportioned  to  it  its  share  of  state 
aid,  the  state  superintendent  may,  after  the  time  hereinbefore 
fixed  for  such  apportionment  by  him,  fix  an  amount  ten  per 
centum  less  than  the  amount  Which  such  school  would  have 
been  entitled  to  had  it  complied  with  the  provisions  of  this 
section,  and  certify  the  same  to  the  secretary  of  state  with  the 
report  of  such  district  annexed  thereto,  and  the  secretary  of 
state  shall  thereupon  draw  his  warrant  for  such  amount  or 
amounts  in  favor  of  such  district.  The  whole  amount  annually 
paid  under  the  provisions  of  this  section  shall  not  exceed 
seventy-five  thousand  dollars,  and  if  more  be  demanded  by  such, 
districts  they  shall  be  paid  proportionally;  provided,  that  if 
the  whole  amount  authorized  to  be  paid  annually  in  aid  of  free 
high  schools  as  provided  by  section  491b  as  amended  by  this  act, 
is  not  demanded  or  expended  under  the  .provisions  of  that  sec- 
tion then  the  unexpended  balance  of  the  amount  therein  annu- 
ally authorized  to  be  paid  in  aid  of  such  schools  may  be  added 
to  and  apportioned  among  the  free  high  schools  provided  for 
in  sections  490  and  491 ;  but  no  more  than  one  hundred  thou- 
sand dollars  shall  be  apportioned  to  both  classes  of  schools 
in  any  one  year. 

Supervision  and  course  of  study.  Section  496a,  (as  amended 
by  Chap.  429,  Laws  of  1901).  The  state  superintendent  shall 
prepare  a  course  or  courses  of  study  suitable  to  be  pursued  in 
free  high  schools,  publish  the  same  and  furnish  the  same  upon 
application.  He  shall  exercise  such  personal  supervision  and 
make  such,  personal  inspection  of  the  work  of  all  such  schools 
as  they  seem  to  require  and  the  other  duties  of  his  office  may 
warrant ;  he  shall  examine  or  cause  to  be  examined  all  teachers 
of  high  schools,  requiied  by  law 'to  pass  special  examinations 
to  qualify  them  for  teaching  in  high  schools,  and  grant  certifi- 
cates to  such  as  pass  examinations  satisfactorily,  which  certifi- 
cates shall  be  in  such  form  and  for  such  time  as  he  may  pre- 
scribe, and  shall  authorize  the  holder  to  teach  in  such  special 
place  or  places,  or  in  the  whole  state,  as  the  qualifications  of 


WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH    SCHOOL   MANUAL,  1906.          1Q1 

the  candidate  may  warrant.  Each  free  high  school  shall  offer 
at  least  a  twelve  weeks'  course  of  instruction  each  year  in 
the  theory  and  art  of  teaching;  in  the  organization,  manage- 
ment, and  course  of  study  of  ungraded  schools;  and  in  the 
duties  of  citizens  in  the  organization  and  administration  of  lo- 
cal school  systems.  Such  a  course  of  instruction  shall  be  open 
to  all  students  in  this  school  and  a  satisfactory  standing  in  the 
work  of  this  course  rhall  be  a  condition  precedent  to  the  count- 
ersignature  of  a  diploma  held  by  a  graduate  of  the  school  as 
provided  in  section  7  of  this  act.  Said  superintendent  shall 
furnish  suitable  blanks  for  annual  and  special  reports  for  all 
such  schools,  which  shall  require  returns  as  to  the  number,  age 
and  sex  of  all  pupils  enrolled,  the  number  in  each  class  or  year 
in  the  course  of  study,  the  number  pursuing  English  branches 
only, the  number  completing  the  course  of  study  each  year  and 
such  other  statistics  as  may  be  deemed  necessary. 

Manual  training.  Section  496b.  Any  board  having  charge 
of  a  free  high  school  or  of  a  high  school  having  a  course  of  study 
equivalent  to  the  course  or  courses  prescribed  by  the  state  su- 
perintendent ifor  such  schools  may  establish,  and  maintain  a 
department  of  manual  training  in  connection  with  the  school 
under  its  management.  The  expense  of  maintaining  such  de- 
partment shall  be  provided  for  in  the  same  manner  as  other 
expenses  of  maintaining  high  schools,  and  such  department 
shall  be  under  the  management,  direction  and  control  of  such 
board.  The  state  superintendent  shall,  so  far  as  his  other  du- 
ties may  warrant,  give  such  information  and  assistance  as  may 
seem  necessary  in  organizing  and  maintaining  such  departments, 
and  in  arranging  schemes  and  outlines  of  work;  and  with  the 
aid  of  the  inspector  of  high  schools  shall  have  the  general  super- 
vision of  all  manual  training  departments  established  under 
this  section ;  shall  from  tim^e  to  time  inspect  the  same,  make 
such  recommendations  relating  to  their  management  as  he  may 
deem  necessary,  and  make  such  report  thereon  as  shall  give 
full  information  concerning  their  number,  character  and  effi- 
ciency. The  state  superintendent  shall  establish  a  standard 
of  qualification  for  all  teachers  in  such  department,  and  may 
grant  special  certificates  to  such  applicants  as  are  fully  quali- 
fied to  instruct  in  special  lines  of  manual  work,  which  certifi- 
cates shall  be  in  such  form  and  for  such  time  as  he  may  pre- 
scribe, and  shall  be  regarded  as  qualifying  the  holders  thereof 
to  teach  in  any  manual  training  department. 


102         WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH   SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906. 

State  aid  for  manual  training  department.  Section  496c,  (as 
amended  by  Chap.  273,  Laws  of  1899).  Any  high  school  whose 
course  of  study  or  outline  of  work  in  manual  training-  has  been 
approved  by  the  state  superintendent,  and  whose  teacher  has 
been  qualified  may,,  upon  /application,  be  placed  upon  an  ap- 
proved list  of  schools  maintaining  manual  training  departments. 
A  school  once  entered  upon  such  list  may  remain  there  and  be 
entitled  to  state  aid  so  long  as  the  scope  and  character  of  its 
work  are  maintained  in  such  manner  as  to  meet  the  approval 
of  such  superintendent.  On  the  first  day  of  July  in  each  year 
the  clerk  of  each  school  board  maintaining  a  school  on  the 
approved  list  or  the  city  superintendent  of  any  city  where 
such  an  approved  school  is  maintained,  shall  report  to  the  state 
superintendent  in  such  form  as  may  be  required,  setting  forth 
the  facts  relating  to  the  cost  of  maintaining  the  manual  training 
department  thereof,  the  character  of  the  work  done,  the  num- 
ber and  names  of  teachers  employed,  and  the  length  of  time 
such  department  was  maintained  during  the  preceding  year. 
And  upon  the  receipt  of  such  report,  if  it  shall  appear  that  the 
department  has  been  maintained  in  a  satisfactory  manner  for 
a  period  of  not  less  than  six  months  during  the  year,  the  said 
superintendent  shall  make  a  certificate  to  that  effect  and  file  it 
with  the  secretary  of  state.  Upon  receiving  such  certificate 
the  secretary  of  state  shall  draw  his  warrant  for  two  hundred 
?  ud  fifty  dollars  payable  to  the  treasurer  of  the  district  or  cor- 
poration maintaining  the  school ;  provided,  that  the  total  amount 
expended  for  such  purpose  shall  not  exceed  five  thousand  dol- 
lars in  any  year. 

Certification  of  manual  training  and  domestic  science  teach- 
ers. (Chapter  64.)  Section  1.  A  diploma  granted  by  the 
board  of  regents  of  normal  schools  to  any  person  who  completes 
the  training  course  for  teachers  of  manual  training  or  of  do- 
mestic science,  established  by  said  board  in  any  of  the  state  nor- 
mal schools,  shall  be  regarded  as  a  certificate  legally  qualifying 
the  holder  thereof  to  teach  manual  training  and  domestic  science 
respectively  for  one  year  in  any  school  forming  a  part  of  the 
public  school  system.  The  state  superintendent  may,  after  such 
examination  as  to  moral  character,  learning  and  ability  to  teach, 
as  to  him  may  seem  proper,  countersign  such  diploma  if,  since 
receiving  it,  the  holder  has  taught  manual  training  or  domestic 
science  in  a  public  school  in  this  state  one  year,  and  thereafter 


WISCONSIN  FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906.         103 

such,  countersigned  diploma  shall  qualify  the  holder  as  a  teach- 
er of  manual  training  or  domestic  science  as  the  case  may  be, 
until  the  same  shall  be  annulled. 

Other  diplomas;  special  license.  Section  2.  The  holder  of 
a  diploma  granted  by  any  manual  training  school  or  school  of 
domestic  science,  upon  the  completion  of  a  training  course  for 
teachers  in  either  subject  fully  and  fairly  equivalent  to  the 
course  of  instruction  for  teachers  in  the  same  subjects  pre- 
scribed by  the  board  of  regents  of  normal  schools,  may  present 
such  diploma,  together  with  the  evidence  of  the  required  stand- 
ing of  the  training  school  issuing  such  diploma,  to  the  state 
board  of  examiners.  The  applicant  shall  furnish  therewith 
testimonials  of  good  moral  character  and  of  two  years'  suc- 
cessful teaching  of  manual  training  or  domestic  science,  as 
the  case  may  be,  in  the  public  schools  of  the  state  after  the 
date  of  such  diploma.  The  holder  of  any  such  diploma,  recom- 
mended favorably  by  the  board,  shall  be  entitled  to  receive  a 
certificate  issued  by  the  state  superintendent,  qualifying  the 
holder  as  a  teacher  of  manual  training  or  of  domestic  science, 
until  the  same  shall  be  annulled.  The  holder  of  a  diploma, 
granted  upon  the  completion  of  a  course  of  study,  accredited  as 
herein  provided,  upon  which  a  state  certificate  has  not  been  is- 
sued, upon  the  recommendation  of  the  board  of  examiners  made 
in  pursuance  of  such  examination  as  to  learning,  moral  charac- 
ter and  ability  to  teach  las  said  board  may  require,  m!ay  be  giv- 
en a  special  license  by  the  state  superintendent  to  teach  manual 
training  or  domestic  science  as  recommended  by  the  board,  for 
two  years  in  the  public  schools  of  the  state. 

Countersignature  of  high  school  diploma  by  county  superin- 
tendent. Section  452a.  The  free  high  school  board  shall 
make  out  and  deliver  to  each  graduate  of  the  high  school  at 
the  time  of  graduation,  a  certificate  of  his  standing  in  the 
branches  pursued  by  him  in  such  school;  and  if  such  graduate 
of  a  high  school,  having  a  four  years'  course,  receive  a  first 
grade  certificate  from  any  county  superintendent,  and  furnish 
to  him  or  to  any  other  county  superintendent,  a  certificate  from 
the  free  high  school  board  that  includes  a  satisfactory  stand- 
ing in  theory  and  art  of  teaching,  based  on  a  study  of  this 
subject  in  a  free  high  school  for  at  least  twelve  weeks 
and  furnish  also  satisfactory  proof  of  having  taught  success- 


104         WISCONSIN   FREE   HIGH  (SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906. 

fully  at  least  one  school  year,  under  such  first  grade  certificate, 
such  county  superintendent  may  countersign  his  certificate  of 
.graduation  or  diploma  at  any  time  before  the  expiration  of  the 
.first  grade  certificate,  and  affix  the  date  of  such  signature 
thereto.  The  diploma  so  countersigned  shall  have  for  the 
period  of  five  years  thereafter,  the  force  and  effect  of  a  first 
grade  certificate.  It  shall  be  lawful  for  more  than  one  county 
superintendent  to  countersign  the  diploma,  but  no  countersig- 
nature  shall  have  the  effect  of  extending  the  diploma  as  a  first 
grade  certificate  beyond  the  expiration  of  the  five  years  immed- 
iately following  the  date  of  its  first  countersignature. 

State  superintendent;  special  licenses;  state  certificates; 
diplomas.  (Chapter  231,  laws  of  1905.)  Section  458i.  The 
state  superintendent  is  authorized  and  empowered  to  counter- 
sign diplomas  and  issue  state  certificates  to  persons  who  are 
•engaged  in  supervising  work  in  the  public  schools  or  teaching 
in  colleges  or  normal  schools,  otherwise  legally  qualified  under 
existing  statutes  or  are  recommended  by  the  state  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 

Section  458 j.  The  state  superintendent  may  issue  a  special 
license  good  only  until  the  next  meeting  of  the  state  board  of 
examiners  in  cases  where  the  applicant  gives  satisfactory  evi- 
dence that  his  qualifications  and  credentials  shall  m\eet  the  re- 
quirements of  the  board  of  examiners;  said  temporary  license 
to  be  issued  only  in  urgent  cases  and  in  order  that  the  school 
Aboard,  or  board  of  education  may  be  legally  authorized  to  pay 
the  salary  of  said  teacher  from  the  funds  of  the  district  for 
services  rendered. 

Section  458k.  The  state  superintendent  may  upon  the  rec- 
ommendation of  the  state  board  of  examiners,  grant  a  special 
certificate  legally  qualifying  the  holder  to  teach  such  special 
branch  or  branches  in  the  public  schools  as  may  be  named  on 
the  face  of  the  certificate. 

Section  4581.  Upon  the  recommendation  of  the  state  board 
•of  examiners  an  applicant  may  be*  granted  a  limited  special 
certificate  qualifying  him  to  teach  not  more  than  one  special 
branch  in  the  public  schools,  said  certificate  being  limited  to 
one  particular  school  or  district  to  be  named  in  the  certificate, 
said  certificate  to  be  null  and  void  in  any  other  school  or  dis- 
trict. 


WdSCONSIN  FREE  HIGH    SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906.          1Q5 


FORMS  FOE  ESTABLISHING  FREE  HIGH 

SCHOOLS. 


No.  48. 

Form  of  resolution  proposing  establishment  of  a  town  free 
high,  school. 

In  order  that  the  question  of  establishing   and   maintaining 
.a  town  free  high  school  in  the  town  of  -  —  may  be 

properly  submitted  to  the  electors  of  said  town  for  considera- 
tion and  final  determination,  the  following  resolution  is  pro- 
posed for  adoption: 

Resolved,  by  the  undersigned  town  board  of  supervisors  of 
the  town  of  -  — ,  that  a  town  free  high  school  be 

established,  organized  and  maintained  in  said  town  and  the 
town  clerk  is  hereby  directed  to  give  due  notice  that  this  reso- 
lution will  be  submitted  to  a  vote  of  the  duly  qualified  electors 
(men  and  women)  of  the  town  of  -  -  at  the  annual 

town  meeting,  (or  at  the  general  election  on  the  first  Tuesday 
after  the  first  Monday  in  November;  or  at  a  special  town  meet- 
ing or  election)  to  be  held  in  said  town  of  -  —  on  the 
-  day  of  -              — ,  190—. 

Dated  this  -         -  day  of  -  —  190—. 

Signed : 


Board  of  Supervisors. 


106         WISCONSIN  FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906. 


Form  of  notice  that  the  foregoing  resolution  will  be  sub- 
mitted to  vote. 

Notice  is  hereby  given  in  accordance  with  a  resolution* 
adopted  by  the  board  of  supervisors,  to  the  duly  qualified 
electors  (men  and  women)  in  the  town  of  —  — ,  county 

of —  that  at  the  annual  town  meeting,  (or  at  the  gen- 
eral election  on  the  first  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in 
November;  or  at  a  special  town  meeting  or  election)  to  be  held 

in  the  said  town  of  -  -  on  the  —     —  day  of , 

190 — ,  the  following  resolution  will  be  submitted  to  the  vote 
of  the  electors  of  said  town : 

Resolved,  that  a  town  free  high  school  shall  be  established 
and  maintained  in  said  town  of  -  — ,  and  further 

that  at  said  election  there  shall  be  chosen  a  town  free  high 
school  board  consisting  of  three  persons  who  shall  take  their 
ofiices  if  said  resolution  shall  be  adopted,  the  clerk  for  one 
year,  the  treasurer  for  two  years  and  the  director  for  three 
years,  the  time  elapsing  between  their  election  and  the  next- 
annual  town  rrieeting  to  be  considered  as  one  year. 

Dated  this day  of ,  190—. 


Town  Clerl-  of  the  Town  of- 


1No.  48a. 

Form  of  resolution  proposing  the  establishment  of  a,  school 
district  free  high  school. 

In  order  that  the  question  of  establishing  and  organizing  a 

school  district  free  high  school  in  (joint)  district  No.  of 

the  town  (or  towns)  of  —  — ,  —        —  county,  Wiscor  • 

sin,  may  be  properly  submitted  to  the  electors,  men  and  women, 
of  said  district  for  consideration  and  final  determination,  the- 
following  resolution  is  proposed  for  adoption: 

Resolved,  by  the  undersigned  board  of  education  (or  school 

district  board)  of  (joint)  school  district  No. ,  — 

county,. that  a  district  free  high  school  shall  be  established, 
organized  and  maintained  in  said  district.  The  district  board 
is  hereby  authorized  and  directed  to  give  due  notice  that  this 
resolution  will  be  submitted  to  a  vote  of  the  duly  qualified 


WSCONSIN  FREE  HIGH   SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906.         107 

electors,  men  and  women,  of  said   school  district    (joint)    No. 
— ,  at  the  regular  annual   district  meeting    (or  at  a 

special  school  meeting)  to  be  held  in  said  district  on  the 

day  of  -  —   190—. 

Dated  this day  of  —  — ,  190 — . 

Signed 


Board  of  Education  (or  School  District  Board), 


Form  of  resolution  proposing  the  establishment  of  a  school 
district  free  high  school. 

Notice  is  hereby  given  to  the  duly  qualified  electors,  men 

and  women,  of  (joint)  school  district  No. of  the  town  (or 

towns)  of  -  — ,  -  —  county,  Wisconsin,  that 

in  accordance  with  a  resolution  adopted  by  the  board  of  edu- 
cation, (or  school  district  board)  the  following  resolution  will 
be  submitted  to  the  vote  of  the  electors  of  said  district  at  the 
annual  meeting  (or  at  a  special  district  meeting)  to  be  held  on 
the  -  -  day  of  —  — ,  190—: 

Resolved,  that  a  district  free  high  school  shall  be  established 
and  maintained  in  said  district  No. town  (or  towns)  of 


Dated  this day  of ,  190 — . 


District  Cleric  of  District  No.- 


No.  50. 

Form  of  certificate  to  be  forwarded  to  the  State  Superin- 
tendent preliminary  to  securing  the  certificate  of  establishment 
and  organization  of  a  town  free  high  school. 

This  certifies  that  on  the day  of  -  — ,  190—,  the 

legally  qualified  voters,  men  and  womien,  of  the  town  of  - 

— ,  assembled  at  the  annual  town  meeting  (or  at  the  gen- 
eral election  held  the  first  Tuesday  after  the  first  Monday  in 
November ;  or  at  a  special  town  meeting  or  election)  voted  and 
adopted  the  following  resolution  submitted  by  the  town  board 


108         WISCONSIN   FREE  HIGH  SCHOOL   MANUAL,   1906. 

of  supervisors,  having  for  its  purpose  the  establishment,  or- 
ganization and  maintenance  of  a  town  free  high  school  in  said 
town  of  -  — ,  -  —  county,  Wisconsin  < 

Resolved,  that  a  town  free  high  school  be  established,  organ- 
ized and  maintained  in  said  town  of  -  — ,  - 
county,  Wisconsin. 

It  is  hereby  further  certified  that  this  election  was  held  pur- 
suant to  law  and  after  due  notification  and  that  the  electors  of 
—  voted  by  ballot  as  follows: 

(For  town  free  high  school- 
Males  .  ( 

(Against  town  free  high  school— 


(For  town  free  high  school- 
Females  ( 

(Against  town  free  high  school- 
Total  votes  for  town  free  high  school— 
Against  town  free  high  school- 
It  is  further  certified  that  the  following  persons  were  voted 
fo,-  as  officers  of  said  town  free  high  school  and  were  declared 
duly  elected  and  that  each  of  said  officers  has  each  for  him- 
self given  his  signature  hereto: 
Clerk —                  —Term  expires — 
Director —                  —Term  expires — 
Treasurer —  Term  expires — 


No.  50a, 

Form  of  certificate  to  be  forwarded  to  the  State  Superin- 
tendent to  secure  a  certificate  of  establishment  and  organiza- 
tion of  a  district  free  high  school. 

This  certifies  that  on  the  -  -  day  of  -  — ,  190 — , 

the  legally  qualified  voters,  men  and  women,  of  (joint)  school 

district  No.  -  —  town  (or  towns,  or  village)  of  —  , 

county  of  -  — ,  assembled  at  the  annual  school  dis- 

trict meeting  (or  at  a  special  district  meeting)  held  on  the 

day  of  -  — ,  19 — ,  voted  upon  and  adopted  the 

following  resolution  submitted  by  the  school  district  board  (or 
board  of  education)  of  said  school  district  No. —  . 

Resolved,  that  a  district  free  high  school  be  established, 

organized  and  maintained  in  (joint)  school  district  No. 

town,  (or  towns,  or  village)  of  -  , county, 

Wisconsin. 


WilSCONSIN  FREE  HIGH  SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906.          109 

It  is  hereby  further  certified  that  said  election  was  held  pur- 
suant to  law  and  after  due  notification  and  that  the  electors 
voted  by  ballot  as  follows : 

(For  district  free  high  school — 
Males  ( 

(Against  district  free  high  school — 


(For  district  free  high  school — 
Females  ( 

(Against  district  free  high  school — 
Total  votes  for  district  free  high  school — 
Against  district  free  high  school- 
In  accordance   with   the   above   facts   we   the  undersigned 
school  district  board  (or   board  of    education)  do  hereby   re- 
quest you  as  State  Superintendent  to  issue  a  certificate  estab- 
lishing a  district  free  high  school  for  said  school  district  No. 


Signed : 

— ,  Director. 
— ,  Clerk, 
,  Treasurer. 


The  following  method  of  procedure  is  suggested  to  school 
boards  in  the  case  of  non-resident  pupils  attending  Free  High 
Schools,  as  a  means  of  preventing  friction  and  misunderstand- 
ing in  applying  the  new  law  relative  to  tuition.  A  printed 
blank  similar  to  the  following,  is  signed  by  the  applicant, 
county  superintendent,  and  a  supervisor  of  the  town  in  which 
the  pupil  resides  and  presented  in  duplicate  by  the  applicant 
shortly  after  entering  school  would  serve  to  give  notice  to  all 
parties  interested,  and  would  also  be  sufficient  evidence  there- 
after, when  attached  to  the  bill  for  tuition,  that  the  pupil  has 
completed  the  course  of  study  for  common  cshools. 

Let  the  principal  issue  these  blanks  to  pupils  upon  entering 
school.  When  the  candidates  have1  filled  them  out  and  signed 
them,  the  principal  should  then  forward  them  in  duplicate  to 
the  county  superintendent.  When  signed  by  him,  let  them 
be  returned  to  the  principal  who  in  turn  may  send  them  by  the 
applicant,  to  be  signed  by  a  supervisor  of  the  town,  and  to  be 
returned  by  him  to  the  clerk  of  the  school  board. 


HO         WISCONSIN  FREE  HIGH  SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906. 

Ths  certifies  that ,  age  ,  is  a  resident  of  the  Town 

of ,  County  of ,  State  of  Wisconsin,  and  that 1  has 

completed  the  course  of  study  prescribed  for  common  schools, 
and  is  entitled  to  all  privileges  granted  in  Chapter  329,  Laws 
of  1903,  amending  Chapter  183,  Laws  of  1901,  for  the  school 
year  beginning  . 


County  Superintendent. 


Applicant  sign  here.  Supervisor, 

Town  of . 

Dated . 

The  above  blanks  will  not  be  furnished  by  this  office,  but 
would  need  to  be  prepared  by  the  High  School  Board. 


WISCONSIN  FREE  HIGH  SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906. 


Ill 


No.  51. 

The  following  form  is  intended  to  show  what  items  are  to 
"be  prepared  by  the  principal  at  the  close  of  the  school  year,  as 
-a  part  of  his  report  to  the  free  high  school  board : 


STATISTICAL  REPORT  OF  'j.*iE  FREE  HIGH  SCHOOL  AT 

FOR  THE  SCHOOL  YEAR  ENDING  JUNE  30,  190—. 

Male    Fem'le   Total 

1.  Number  of  teachers  employed  including  principal..... 

2.  Number  of  pupils  registered  not  over  20  years  of  age. 

3.  Number  of  pupils  registered  over  20  years  of  age 

4.  Average  daily  attendance  

5.  Number  of  days  of  High  School  (including  holidays) 

6.  Number  of  pupils  in  English  branches  only... 

7.  Number  of  pupils  in  German 

8.  Number  of  pupils  in  Latin 

9.  Number  of  pupils  studying  both  Latin  and  German 

10.  Number  of  pupils  in  Greek 

11.  Number  of  pupils  studying  both  Latin  and  Greek 

12.  Cost  of  instruction  in  German  $ In  Latin  $ In  Greek  $. 

13.  Average   age   of   pupils   entering   the   High    School.    Males 

Females  

14.  Average  age  of  pupils  at  leaving!  the  High  School.    Males 

Females 

15.  Number  of  persons  who  graduated  in  190—.    Male Female... 

16.  Number  of   these   who  have  taught   at   any   time   since   graduation 

Male Female 

17.  Number  of  graduates  this  year.    Males Females. 

18.  Number  graduates  since  organization  of  school- 

Males Females Total 

19.  K'umber  years  required  to  complete  the  course  of  study... 

20.  Is  the  school  on  the  Univ.  Wis.  accredited  list 

21.  Number  of  non-resident  pupils  during  year 

22.  Rate  of  tuition  for  non-residents  per  month 

23.  Total  amount  received  and  due  for  tuition 

24.  Average  yearly  salary  of  the  high  school  assistants 


112          WISCONSIN  FREE  HIGH  SCHOOL  MANUAL,  1906. 


25.  Total  amount  of  salaries  of  principal  and  assistants.... I 

26.  What  portion  of  the  principal's  service  is  given  to  the  actual  super- 

vision of  the  grades  below  the  high  school? v-' 


27.    Name  the  high  school  branches  actually  taught  by  the  principal.... 


28.    Give   total    number   of   pupils   enrolled   in    each   grade    in   the  high 
school,  1st  year 2d 3d ,  4th  (or  senior) 


29.    Does   the   high   school   district   furnish   the   text   books?    If   so,    are 
they  free,  rented,  or  sold  to  the  high  school  pupils? 


Name  of  Principal  ., 
Salary  of  Principal 
Names  of  assistants 


Is  the  Principal  Superintendent,  also?  

I  hereby  certify  that  the  above  is  correct. 


Clerk. 


NOTE. — Two  copies  of  this  report  are  sent,  one  of  which 
should  be  returned  to  the  State  Superintendent  on  or  before 
July  10,  and  the  other  filed  among  the  clerk's  records.  Statis- 
tics relating  to  High  School  departments  only  should  be  given. 
Do  not  omit  to  fill  out  every  blank  space  by  some  mark,  words- 
or  figures.  Write  the  first  name  of  each  assistant  in  full. 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Admission,  requirements  for 14-17 

Algebra 39-42 

Apparatus 24-27 

Approval  of  Courses  by  State  Superintendent 9 

Arithmetic 38-39 

Assistants 5-7 

Bookkeeping 54-55 

Botany 31-36 

Certificates  of  legal  qualifications  for  High  School  principals  and 

assistants 4-7 

Composition 77-78 

Constitutional  history  of  the  United  States 60-61 

Constitution  of  the  United  States 61 

Constitution  of  Wisconsin 61-62 

Courses  of  Study 8-12 

Core  of  required  work 9 

Proposed  changes  in  course  of  study 9 

State  Superintendent  to  prepare  courses 8 

Type  courses 10-12 

Economics 62-63 

Elements  of  agriculture 31-32 

Employment  of  teachers  without  legal  qualifications — effect  of 4 

English 76-84 

Books  for  teachers 84 

Composition 77-78 

Expressive  reading 78-79 

Grammar 81-82 

History  of  literature 83-84 

Literary  readings 78-80 

Expressive  reading  ...    82 

8 


114  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Forms 105-112 

Notice  of  vote 106-107 

Preliminary  certificate  of  establishment 107-109 

Resolution  proposing  establishment 105-106 

Entrance  certificate .  , 110 

Report  of  principal 111-112 

General  Suggestions 7 

Legal  qualifications  necessary  to  validity  of  contract 4 

Organization 4 

Qualifications  of  teachers 4-7 

German 64-70 

Advanced 66 

First  year  course 65 

Second  year  course . . .  r 65-66 

Geometry 42-53 

Greek 74-76 

History 56-60 

Constitutional  History  of  the  United  States 60-61 

Curriculum 59-60 

Method  in  teaching  history 57-59 

Purpose  of  instruction 56-57 

Reference  books  for  teachers 6 

Introduction 

Language  (Foreign) 63-64 

Latin 70-74 

Literary  Readings 78-80 

Literature 78-84 

Books  for  teachers 84 

.Expressive  reading 78-79 

History  of  literature 83-84 

Jjiterary  readings 78-80 

Management 

Principal— relation  of ,  to  school  and  board 7 

Principal- to  administer  courses  as  adopted  by  the  board  and 

approved  by  the  State  Superintendent 7 


INDEX.  115 

Page 

Mathematics   38-53 

Algebra 39-42 

Arithmetic 38-39 

Bookkeeping 54-55 

Geometry 42-53 

-Organization  of  free  high  schools 4 

Physical  geography 30-31 

Physics 22-28 

Physiology 28  30 

Political  economy 62-63 

Principal — qualifications  of 4-5 

Relation  to  school  and  board 7 

To  administer  courses  as  adopted  by  the  board  and  approved  by 

the  State  Superintendent '  7 

Program  of  study  and  recitation 7 

Qualifications  of  high  school  teachers 4-6 

Reading— expressive 78-79 

Literary 78-79 

Records 13-14 

Book  records 13 

Card  records 14 

Science 20-36 

Botany 31-36 

Elements  of  agriculture 31-32 

Introduction 20-22 

Physical  geography 30-31 

Physics 22-28 

Physiology 28-30 

Theory  and  art  of  teaching , 36-37 

Statistical  report  of  free  high  schools 111-112 

Statutes  relating  to  free  high  schools   88-104 

Certificate  of  establishment  90 

Countersignature  of   high  school  diplomas  by   county  superin- 
tendent .  103 


116  INDEX. 


State  Superintendent;  special  licenses;  state  certificates;  diplomas. .       104 

Statutes  relating  to: 

Course  of  study  and  supervision 100-101 

High  school  district  officers 91-93 

Joint  districts — how  established 89 

Manual  training 101-102 

Certificate  of  manual  training  and  domestic  science  teachers  102-103 

Officers'  duties 94 

Qualifications  of  teachers , 94-95 

Schools— free 94-95 

Single  districts— how  established 88 

State  aid 90-91 

Supervision  and  course  of  study 100-101 

Taxes— apportionment  of 97 

Teachers'  qualifications 94-95 

Township  system 93 

Free  high  school  buildings 98 

Tuition 95-96 

Teachers'  qualifications 4-7 

Theory  and  art  of  teaching 36-37 

Legal  requirement  in  courses  (See  pp.  8  and  section  496a) 100-101 


